AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS
by Adam Smith
1776

                          BOOK FOUR
               OF SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
                         INTRODUCTION

    POLITICAL economy, considered as a branch of the science of a
statesman or legislator, proposes two distinct objects: first, to
provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people, or
more properly to enable them to provide such a revenue or
subsistence for themselves; and secondly, to supply the state or
commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services.
It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign.
     The different progress of opulence in different ages and
nations has given occasion to two different systems of political
economy with regard to enriching the people. The one may be
called the system of commerce, the other that of agriculture. I
shall endeavour to explain both as fully and distinctly as I can,
and shall begin with the system of commerce. It is the modern
system, and is best understood in our own country and in our own
times.
                              CHAPTER I

       Of the Principle of the Commercial, or Mercantile System 

     THAT wealth consists in money, or and silver, is a popular
notion which naturally arises from the double function of money,
as the instrument of commerce and as the measure of value. In
consequence of its being the instrument of commerce, when we have
money we can more readily obtain whatever else we have occasion
for than by means of any other commodity. The great affair, we
always find, is to get money. When that is obtained, there is no
difficulty in making any subsequent purchase. In consequence of
its being the measure of value, we estimate that of all other
commodities by the quantity of money which they will exchange
for. We say of a rich man that he is worth a great deal, and of a
poor man that he is worth very little money. A frugal man, or a
man eager to be rich, is said to love money; and a careless, a
generous, or a profuse man, is said to be indifferent about it.
To grow rich is to get money; and wealth and money, in short,
are, in common language, considered as in every respect
synonymous.
     A rich country, in the same manner as a rich man, is
supposed to be a country abounding in money; and to heap up gold
and saver in any country is supposed to be the readiest way to
enrich it. For some time after the discovery of America, the
first inquiry of the Spaniards, when they arrived upon an unknown
coast, used to be, if there was any gold or silver to be found in
the neighbourhood. By the information which they received, they
judged whether it was worth while to make a settlement there, or
if the country was worth the conquering. Plano Carpino, a monk,
sent ambassador from the King of France to one of the sons of the
famous Genghis Khan, says that the Tartars used frequently to ask
him if there was plenty of sheep and oxen in the kingdom of
France. Their inquiry had the same object with that of the
Spaniards. They wanted to know if the country was rich enough to
be worth the conquering. Among the Tartars, as among all other
nations of shepherds, who are generally ignorant of the use of
money, cattle are the instruments of commerce and the measures of
value. Wealth, therefore, according to them, consisted in cattle,
as according to the Spaniards it consisted in gold and silver. Of
the two, the Tartar notion, perhaps, was the nearest to the
truth.
     Mr. Locke remarks a distinction between money and other
movable goods. All other movable goods, he says, are of so
consumable a nature that the wealth which consists in them cannot
be much depended on, and a nation which abounds in them one year
may, without any exportation, but merely their own waste and
extravagance, be in great want of them the next. Money, on the
contrary, is a steady friend, which, though it may travel about
from hand to hand, yet if it can be kept from going out of the
country, is not very liable to be wasted and consumed. Gold and
silver, therefore, are, according to him, the most solid and
substantial part of the movable wealth of a nation, and to
multiply those metals ought, he thinks, upon that account, to be
the great object of its political economy.
     Others admit that if a nation could be separated from all
the world, it would be of no consequence how much, or how little
money circulated in it. The consumable goods which were
circulated by means of this money would only be exchanged for a
greater or a smaller number of pieces; but the real wealth or
poverty of the country, they allow, would depend altogether upon
the abundance or scarcity of those consumable goods. But it is
otherwise, they think, with countries which have connections with
foreign nations, and which are obliged to carry on foreign wars,
and to maintain fleets and armies in distant countries. This,
they say, cannot be done but by sending abroad money to pay them
with; and a nation cannot send much money abroad unless it has a
good deal at home. Every such nation, therefore, must endeavour
in time of peace to accumulate gold and silver that, when
occasion requires, it may have wherewithal to carry on foreign
wars.
     In consequence of these popular notions, all the different
nations of Europe have studied, though to little purpose, every
possible means of accumulating gold and silver in their
respective countries. Spain and Portugal, the proprietors of the
principal mines which supply Europe with those metals, have
either prohibited their exportation under the severest penalties,
or subjected it to a considerable duty. The like prohibition
seems anciently to have made a part of the policy of most other
European nations. It is even to be found, where we should least
of all expect to find it, in some old Scotch acts of Parliament,
which forbid under heavy penalties the carrying gold or silver
forth of the kingdom. The like policy anciently took place both
in France and England.
     When those countries became commercial, the merchants found
this prohibition, upon many occasions, extremely inconvenient.
They could frequently buy more advantageously with gold and
silver than with any other commodity the foreign goods which they
wanted, either to import into their own, or to carry to some
other foreign country. They remonstrated, therefore, against this
prohibition as hurtful to trade.
     They represented, first, that the exportation of gold and
silver in order to purchase foreign goods, did not always
diminish the quantity of those metals in the kingdom. That, on
the contrary, it might frequently increase that quantity;
because, if the consumption of foreign goods was not thereby
increased in the country, those goods might be re-exported to
foreign countries, and, being there sold for a large profit,
might bring back much more treasure than was originally sent out
to purchase them. Mr. Mun compares this operation of foreign
trade to the seed-time and harvest of agriculture. "If we only
behold," says he, "the actions of the husbandman in the
seed-time, when he casteth away much good corn into the ground,
we shall account him rather a madman than a husbandman. But when
we consider his labours in the harvest, which is the end of his
endeavours, we shall find the worth and plentiful increase of his
action."
     They represented, secondly, that this prohibition could not
hinder the exportation of gold and silver, which, on account of
the smallness of their bulk in proportion to their value, could
easily be smuggled abroad. That this exportation could only be
prevented by a proper attention to, what they called, the balance
of trade. That when the country exported to a greater value than
it imported, a balance became due to it from foreign nations,
which was necessarily paid to it in gold and silver, and thereby
increased the quantity of those metals in the kingdom. But that
when it imported to a greater value than it exported, a contrary
balance became due to foreign nations, which was necessarily paid
to them in the same manner, and thereby diminished that quantity.
That in this case to prohibit the exportation of those metals
could not prevent it, but only, by making it more dangerous,
render it more expensive. That the exchange was thereby turned
more against the country which owed the balance than it otherwise
might have been; the merchant who purchased a bill upon the
foreign country being obliged to pay the banker who sold it, not
only for the natural risk, trouble, and expense of sending the
money thither, but for the extraordinary risk arising from the
prohibition. But that the more the exchange was against any
country, the more the balance of trade became necessarily against
it; the money of that country becoming necessarily of so much
less value in comparison with that of the country to which the
balance was due. That if the exchange between England and
Holland, for example, was five per cent against England, it would
require a hundred and five ounces of silver in England to
purchase a bill for a hundred ounces of silver in Holland: that a
hundred and five ounces of silver in England, therefore, would be
worth only a hundred ounces of silver in Holland, and would
purchase only a proportionable quantity of Dutch goods; but that
a hundred ounces of silver in Holland, on the contrary, would be
worth a hundred and five ounces in England, and would purchase a
proportionable quantity of English goods: that the English goods
which were sold to Holland would be sold so much cheaper; and the
Dutch goods which were sold to England so much dearer by the
difference of the exchange; that the one would draw so much less
Dutch money to England, and the other so much more English money
to Holland, as this difference amounted to: and that the balance
of trade, therefore, would necessarily be so much more against
England, and would require a greater balance of gold and silver
to be exported to Holland.
     Those arguments were partly solid and partly sophistical.
They were solid so far as they asserted that the exportation of
gold and silver in trade might frequently be advantageous to the
country. They were solid, too, in asserting that no prohibition
could prevent their exportation when private people found any
advantage in exporting them. But they were sophistical in
supposing that either to preserve or to augment the quantity of
those metals required more the attention of government than to
preserve or to augment the quantity of any other useful
commodities, which the freedom of trade, without any such
attention, never fails to supply in the proper quantity. They
were sophistical too, perhaps, in asserting that the high price
of exchange necessarily increased what they called the
unfavourable balance of trade, or occasioned the exportation of a
greater quantity of gold and silver. That high price, indeed, was
extremely disadvantageous to the merchants who had any money to
pay in foreign countries. They paid so much dearer for the bills
which their bankers granted them upon those countries. But though
the risk arising from the prohibition might occasion some
extraordinary expense to the bankers, it would not necessarily
carry any more money out of the country. This expense would
generally be all laid out in the country, in smuggling the money
out of it, and could seldom occasion the exportation of a single
sixpence beyond the precise sum drawn for. The high price of
exchange too would naturally dispose the merchants to endeavour
to make their exports nearly balance their imports, in order that
they might have this high exchange to pay upon as small a sum as
possible. The high price of exchange, besides, must necessarily
have operated as a tax, in raising the price of foreign goods,
and thereby diminishing their consumption. It would tend,
therefore, not to increase but to diminish what they called the
unfavourable balance of trade, and consequently the exportation
of gold and silver.
     Such as they were, however, those arguments convinced the
people to whom they were addressed. They were addressed by
merchants to parliaments and to the councils of princes, to
nobles and to country gentlemen, by those who were supposed to
understand trade to those who were conscious to themselves that
they knew nothing about the matter. That foreign trade enriched
the country, experience demonstrated to the nobles and country
gentlemen as well as to the merchants; but how, or in what
manner, none of them well knew. The merchants knew perfectly in
what manner it enriched themselves. It was their business to know
it. But to know in what manner it enriched the country was no
part of their business. This subject never came into their
consideration but when they had occasion to apply to their
country for some change in the laws relating to foreign trade. It
then became necessary to say something about the beneficial
effects of foreign trade, and the manner in which those effects
were obstructed by the laws as they then stood. To the judges who
were to decide the business it appeared a most satisfactory
account of the matter, when they were told that foreign trade
brought money into the country, but that the laws in question
hindered it from bringing so much as it otherwise would do. Those
arguments therefore produced the wished-for effect. The
prohibition of exporting gold and silver was in France and
England confined to the coin of those respective countries. The
exportation of foreign coin and of bullion was made free. In
Holland, and in some other places, this liberty was extended even
to the coin of the country. The attention of government was
turned away from guarding against the exportation of gold and
silver to watch over the balance of trade as the only cause which
could occasion any augmentation or diminution of those metals.
From one fruitless care it was turned away to another care much
more intricate, much more embarrassing, and just equally
fruitless. The title of Mun's book, England's Treasure in Foreign
Trade, became a fundamental maxim in the political economy, not
of England only, but of all other commercial countries. The
inland or home trade, the most important of all, the trade in
which an equal capital affords the greatest revenue, and creates
the greatest employment to the people of the country, was
considered as subsidiary only to foreign trade. It neither
brought money into the country, it was said, nor carried any out
of it. The country, therefore, could never become either richer
or poorer by means of it, except so far as its prosperity or
decay might indirectly influence the state of foreign trade.
     A country that has no mines of its own must undoubtedly draw
its gold and silver from foreign countries in the same manner as
one that has no vineyards of its own must draw its wines. It does
not seem necessary, however, that the attention of government
should be more turned towards the one than towards the other
object. A country that has wherewithal to buy wine will always
get the wine which it has occasion for; and a country that has
wherewithal to buy gold and silver will never be in want of those
metals. They are to be bought for a certain price like all other
commodities, and as they are the price of all other commodities,
so all other commodities are the price of those metals. We trust
with perfect security that the freedom of trade, without any
attention of government, will always supply us with the wine
which we have occasion for: and we may trust with equal security
that it will always supply us with all the gold and silver which
we can afford to purchase or to employ, either in circulating our
commodities, or in other uses.
     The quantity of every commodity which human industry can
either purchase or produce naturally regulates itself in every
country according to the effectual demand, or according to the
demand of those who are willing to pay the whole rent, labour,
and profits which must be paid in order to prepare and bring it
to market. But no commodities regulate themselves more easily or
more exactly according to this effectual demand than gold and
silver; because, on account of the small bulk and great value of
those metals, no commodities can be more easily transported from
one place to another, from the places where they are cheap to
those where they are dear, from the places where they exceed to
those where they fall short of this effectual demand. If there
were in England, for example, an effectual demand for an
additional quantity of gold, a packet-boat could bring from
Lisbon, or from wherever else it was to be had, fifty tons of
gold, which could be coined into more than five millions of
guineas. But if there were an effectual demand for grain to the
same value, to import it would require, at five guineas a ton, a
million of tons of shipping, or a thousand ships of a thousand
tons each. The navy of England would not be sufficient.
     When the quantity of gold and silver imported into any
country exceeds the effectual demand, no vigilance of government
can prevent their exportation. All the sanguinary laws of Spain
and Portugal are not able to keep their gold and silver at home.
The continual importations from Peru and Brazil exceed the
effectual demand of those countries, and sink the price of those
metals there below that in the neighbouring countries. If, on the
contrary, in any particular country their quantity fell short of
the effectual demand, so as to raise their price above that of
the neighbouring countries, the government would have no occasion
to take any pains to import them. If it were even to take pains
to prevent their importation, it would not be able to effectuate
it. Those metals, when the Spartans had got wherewithal to
purchase them, broke through all the barriers which the laws of
Lycurgus opposed to their entrance into Lacedemon. All the
sanguinary laws of the customs are not able to prevent the
importation of the teas of the Dutch and Gottenburgh East India
Companies, because somewhat cheaper than those of the British
company. A pound of tea, however, is about a hundred times the
bulk of one of the highest prices, sixteen shillings, that is
commonly paid for it in silver, and more than two thousand times
the bulk of the same price in gold, and consequently just so many
times more difficult to smuggle.
     It is partly owing to the easy transportation of gold and
silver from the places where they abound to those where they are
wanted that the price of those metals does not fluctuate
continually like that of the greater part of other commodities,
which are hindered by their bulk from shifting their situation
when the market happens to be either over or under-stocked with
them. The. price of those metals, indeed, is not altogether
exempted from variation, but the changes to which it is liable
are generally slow, gradual and uniform. In Europe, for example,
it is supposed, without much foundation, perhaps, that during the
course of the present and preceding century they have been
constantly, but gradually, sinking in their value, on account of
the continual importations from the Spanish West Indies. But to
make any sudden change in the price of gold and silver, so as to
raise or lower at once, sensibly and remarkably, the money price
of all other commodities, requires such a revolution in commerce
as that occasioned by the discovery of America.
     If, notwithstanding all this, gold and silver should at any
time fall short in a country which has wherewithal to purchase
them, there are more expedients for supplying their place than
that of almost any other commodity. If the materials of
manufacture are wanted, industry must stop. If provisions are
wanted, the people must starve. But if money is wanted, barter
will supply its place, though with a good deal of inconveniency.
Buying and selling upon credit, and the different dealers
compensating their credits with one another, once a month or once
a year, will supply it with less inconveniency. A well-regulated
paper money will supply it, not only without any inconveniency,
but, in some cases, with some advantages. Upon every account,
therefore, the attention of government never was so unnecessarily
employed as when directed to watch over the preservation or
increase of the quantity of money in any country.
     No complaint, however, is more common than that of a
scarcity of money. Money, like wine, must always be scarce with
those who have neither wherewithal to buy it nor credit to borrow
it. Those who have either will seldom be in want either of the
money or of the wine which they have occasion for. This
complaint, however, of the scarcity of money is not always
confined to improvident spendthrifts. It is sometimes general
through a whole mercantile town and the country in its
neighbourhood. Overtrading is the common cause of it. Sober men,
whose projects have been disproportioned to their capitals, are
as likely to have neither wherewithal to buy money nor credit to
borrow it, as prodigals whose expense has been disproportioned to
their revenue. Before their projects can be brought to bear,
their stock is gone, and their credit with it. They run about
everywhere to borrow money, and everybody tells them that they
have none to lend. Even such general complaints of the scarcity
of money do not always prove that the usual number of gold and
silver pieces are not circulating in the country, but that many
people want those pieces who have nothing to give for them. When
the profits of trade happen to be greater than ordinary,
overtrading becomes a general error both among great and small
dealers. They do not always send more money abroad than usual,
but they buy upon credit, both at home and abroad, an unusual
quantity of goods, which they send to some distant market in
hopes that the returns will come in before the demand for
payment. The demand comes before the returns, and they have
nothing at hand with which they can either purchase money, or
give solid security for borrowing. It is not any scarcity of gold
and silver, but the difficulty which such people find in
borrowing, and which their creditors find in getting payment,
that occasions the general complaint of the scarcity of money.
     It would be too ridiculous to go about seriously to prove
that wealth does not consist in money, or in gold and silver; but
in what money purchases, and is valuable only for purchasing.
Money, no doubt, makes always a part of the national capital; but
it has already been shown that it generally makes but a small
part, and always the most unprofitable part of it.
     It is not because wealth consists more essentially in money
than in goods that the merchant find it generally more easy to
buy goods with money than to buy money with goods; but because
money is the known and established instrument of commerce, for
which everything is readily given in exchange, but which is not
always with equal readiness to be got in exchange for everything.
The greater part of goods, besides, are more perishable than
money, and he may frequently sustain a much greater loss by
keeping them. When his goods are upon hand, too, he is more
liable to such demands for money as he may not be able to answer
than when he has got their price in his coffers. Over and above
all this, his profit arises more directly from selling than from
buying, and he is upon all these accounts generally much more
anxious to exchange his goods for money than his money for goods.
But though a particular merchant, with abundance of goods in his
warehouse, may sometimes be ruined by not being able to sell them
in time, a nation or country is not liable to the same accident.
The whole capital of a merchant frequently consists in perish,
able goods destined for purchasing money. But it is but a very
small part of the annual produce of the land and labour of a
country which can ever be destined for purchasing gold and silver
from their neighbours. The far greater part is circulated and
consumed among themselves; and even of the surplus which is sent
abroad, the greater part is generally destined for the purchase
of other foreign goods. Though gold and silver, therefore, could
not be had in exchange for the goods destined to purchase them,
the nation would not be ruined. It might, indeed, suffer some
loss and inconveniency, and be forced upon some of those
expedients which are necessary for supplying the place of money.
The annual produce of its land and labour, however, would be the
same, or very nearly the same, as usual, because the same, or
very nearly the same, consumable capital would be employed in
maintaining it. And though goods do not always draw money so
readily as money draws goods, in the long run they draw it more
necessarily than even it draws them. Goods can serve many other
purposes besides purchasing money, but money can serve no other
purpose besides purchasing goods. Money, therefore, necessarily
runs after goods, but goods do not always or necessarily run
after money. The man who buys does not always mean to sell again,
but frequently to use or to consume; whereas he who sells always
means to buy again. The one may frequently have done the whole,
but the other can never have done more than the one-half of his
business. It is not for its own sake that men desire money, but
for the sake of what they can purchase with it.
     Consumable commodities, it is said, are soon destroyed;
whereas gold and silver are of a more durable nature, and, were
it not for this continual exportation, might be accumulated for
ages together, to the incredible augmentation of the real wealth
of the country. Nothing, therefore, it is pretended, can be more
disadvantageous to any country than the trade which consists in
the exchange of such lasting for such perishable commodities. We
do not, however, reckon that trade disadvantageous which consists
in the exchange of the hardware of England for the wines of
France; and yet hardware is a very durable commodity, and were it
not for this continual exportation might, too, be accumulated for
ages together, to the incredible augmentation of the pots and
pans of the country. But it readily occurs that the number of
such utensils is in every country necessarily limited by the use
which there is for them; that it would be absurd to have more
pots and pans than were necessary for cooking the victuals
usually consumed there; and that if the quantity of victuals were
to increase, the number of pots and pans would readily increase
along with it, a part of the increased quantity of victuals being
employed in purchasing them, or in maintaining an additional
number of workmen whose business it was to make them. It should
as readily occur that the quantity of gold and silver is in every
country limited by the use which there is for those metals; that
their use consists in circulating commodities as coin, and in
affording a species of household furniture as plate; that the
quantity of coin in every country is regulated by the value of
the commodities which are to be circulated by it: increase that
value, and immediately a part of it will be sent abroad to
purchase, wherever it is to be had, the additional quantity of
coin requisite for circulating them: that the quantity of plate
is regulated by the number and wealth of those private families
who choose to indulge themselves in that sort of magnificence:
increase the number and wealth of such families, and a part of
this increased wealth will most probably be employed in
purchasing, wherever it is to be found, an additional quantity of
plate: that to attempt to increase the wealth of any country,
either by introducing or by detaining in it an unnecessary
quantity of gold and silver, is as absurd as it would be to
attempt to increase the good cheer of private families by
obliging them to keep an unnecessary number of kitchen utensils.
As the expense of purchasing those unnecessary utensils would
diminish instead of increasing either the quantity of goodness of
the family provisions, so the expense of purchasing an
unnecessary quantity of gold and silver must, in every country,
as necessarily diminish the wealth which feeds, clothes, and
lodges, which maintains and employs the people. Gold and silver,
whether in the shape of coin or of plate, are utensils, it must
be remembered, as much as the furniture of the kitchen. Increase
the use for them, increase the consumable commodities which are
to be circulated, managed, and prepared by means of them, and you
will infallibly increase the quantity; but if you attempt, by
extraordinary means, to increase the quantity, you will as
infallibly diminish the use and even the quantity too, which in
those metals can never be greater than what the use requires.
Were they ever to be accumulated beyond this quantity, their
transportation is so easy, and the loss which attends their lying
idle and unemployed so great, that no law could prevent their
being immediately sent out of the country.
     It is not always necessary to accumulate gold and silver in
order to enable a country to carry on foreign wars, and to
maintain fleets and armies in distant countries. Fleets and
armies are maintained, not with gold and silver, but with
consumable goods. The nation which, from the annual produce of
its domestic industry, from the annual revenue arising out of its
lands, labour, and consumable stock, has wherewithal to purchase
those consumable goods in distant countries, can maintain foreign
wars there.
     A nation may purchase the pay and provisions of an army in a
distant country three different ways: by sending abroad either,
first, some part of its accumulated gold and silver, or,
secondly, some part of the annual produce of its manufactures;
or, last of all, some part of its annual rude produce.
     The gold and silver which can properly be considered as
accumulated or stored up in any country may be distinguished into
three parts: first, the circulating money; secondly, the plate of
private families; and, last of all, the money which may have been
collected by many years' parsimony, and laid up in the treasury
of the prince.
     It can seldom happen that much can be spared from the
circulating money of the country; because in that there can
seldom be much redundancy. The value of goods annually bought and
sold in any country requires a certain quantity of money to
circulate and distribute them to their proper consumers, and can
give employment to no more. The channel of circulation
necessarily draws to itself a sum sufficient to fill it, and
never admits any more. Something, however, is generally withdrawn
from this channel in the case of foreign war. By the great number
of people who are maintained abroad, fewer are maintained at
home. Fewer goods are circulated there, and less money becomes
necessary to circulate them. An extraordinary quantity of paper
money, of some sort or other, such as exchequer notes, navy
bills, and bank bills in England, is generally issued upon such
occasions, and by supplying the place of circulating gold and
silver, gives an opportunity of sending a greater quantity of it
abroad. All this, however, could afford but a poor resource for
maintaining a foreign war of great expense and several years
duration.
     The melting down the plate of private families has upon
every occasion been found a still more insignificant one. The
French, in the beginning of the last war, did not derive so much
advantage from this expedient as to compensate the loss of the
fashion.
     The accumulated treasures of the prince have, in former
times, afforded a much greater and more lasting resource. In the
present times, if you except the king of Prussia, to accumulate
treasure seems to be no part of the policy of European princes.
     The funds which maintained the foreign wars of the present
century, the most expensive perhaps which history records, seem
to have had little dependency upon the exportation either of the
circulating money, or of the plate of private families, or of the
treasure of the prince. The last French war cost Great Britain
upwards of ninety millions, including not only the seventy-five
millions of new debt that was contracted, but the additional two
shillings in the pound land-tax, and what was annually borrowed
of the sinking fund. More than two-thirds of this expense were
laid out in distant countries; in Germany, Portugal, America, in
the ports of the Mediterranean, in the East and West Indies. The
kings of England had no accumulated treasure. We never heard of
any extraordinary quantity of plate being melted down. The
circulating gold and silver of the country had not been supposed
to exceed eighteen millions. Since the late recoinage of the
gold, however, it is believed to have been a good deal
under-rated. Let us suppose, therefore, according to the most
exaggerated computation which I remember to have either seen or
heard of, that, gold and silver together, it amounted to thirty
millions. Had the war been carried on by means of our money, the
whole of it must, even according to this computation, have been
sent out and returned again at least twice in a period of between
six and seven years. Should this be supposed, it would afford the
most decisive argument to demonstrate how unnecessary it is for
government to watch over the preservation of money, since upon
this supposition the whole money of the country must have gone
from it and returned to it again, two different times in so short
a period, without anybody's knowing anything of the matter. The
channel of circulation, however, never appeared more empty than
usual during any part of this period. Few people wanted money who
had wherewithal to pay for it. The profits of foreign trade,
indeed, were greater than usual during the whole war; but
especially towards the end of it. This occasioned, what it always
occasions, a general overtrading in all the parts of Great
Britain; and this again occasioned the usual complaint of the
scarcity of money, which always follows overtrading. Many people
wanted it, who had neither wherewithal to buy it, nor credit to
borrow it; and because the debtors found it difficult to borrow,
the creditors found it difficult to get payment. Gold and silver,
however, were generally to be had for their value, by those who
had that value to give for them.
     The enormous expense of the late war, therefore, must have
been chiefly defrayed, not by the exportation of gold and silver,
but by that of British commodities of some kind or other. When
the government, or those who acted under them, contracted with a
merchant for a remittance to some foreign country, he would
naturally endeavour to pay his foreign correspondent, upon whom
he had granted a bill, by sending abroad rather commodities than
gold and silver. If the commodities of Great Britain were not in
demand in that country, he would endeavour to send them to some
other country, in which he could purchase a bill upon that
country. The transportation of commodities, when properly suited
to the market, is always attended with a considerable profit;
whereas that of gold and silver is scarce ever attended with any.
When those metals are sent abroad in order to purchase foreign
commodities, the merchant's profit arises, not from the purchase,
but from the sale of the returns. But when they are sent abroad
merely to pay a debt, he gets no returns, and consequently no
profit. He naturally, therefore, exerts his invention to find out
a way of paying his foreign debts rather by the exportation of
commodities than by that of gold and silver. The great quantity
of British goods exported during the course of the late war,
without bringing back any returns, is accordingly remarked by the
author of The Present State of the Nation.
     Besides the three sorts of gold and silver above mentioned,
there is in all great commercial countries a good deal of bullion
alternately imported and exported for the purposes of foreign
trade. This bullion, as it circulates among different commercial
countries in the same manner as the national coin circulates in
every particular country, may be considered as the money of the
great mercantile republic. The national coin receives its
movement and direction from the commodities circulated within the
precincts of each particular country: the money of the mercantile
republic, from those circulated between different countries. Both
are employed in facilitating exchanges, the one between different
individuals of the same, the other between those of different
nations. Part of this money of the great mercantile republic may
have been, and probably was, employed in carrying on the late
war. In time of a general war, it is natural to suppose that a
movement and direction should be impressed upon it, different
from what it usually follows in profound peace; that it should
circulate more about the seat of the war, and be more employed in
purchasing there, and in the neighbouring countries, the pay and
provisions of the different armies. But whatever part of this
money of the mercantile republic Great Britain may have annually
employed in this manner, it must have been annually purchased,
either with British commodities, or with something else that had
been purchased with them; which still brings us back to
commodities, to the annual produce of the land and labour of the
country, as the ultimate resources which enabled us to carry on
the war. It is natural indeed to suppose that so great an annual
expense must have been defrayed from a great annual produce. The
expense of 1761, for example, amounted to more than nineteen
millions. No accumulation could have supported so great an annual
profusion. There is no annual produce even of gold and silver
which could have supported it. The whole gold and silver annually
imported into both Spain and Portugal, according to the best
accounts, does not commonly much exceed six millions sterling,
which, in some years, would scarce have paid four month's expense
of the late war.
     The commodities most proper for being transported to distant
countries, in order to purchase there either the pay and
provisions of an army, or some part of the money of the
mercantile republic to be employed in purchasing them, seem to be
the finer and more improved manufactures; such as contain a great
value in a small bulk, and can, therefore, be exported to a great
distance at little expense. A country whose industry produces a
great annual surplus of such manufactures, which are usually
exported to foreign countries, may carry on for many years a very
expensive foreign war without either exporting any considerable
quantity of gold and silver, or even having any such quantity to
export. A considerable part of the annual surplus of its
manufactures must, indeed, in this case be exported without
bringing back any returns to the country, though it does to the
merchant; the government purchasing of the merchant his bills
upon foreign countries, in order to purchase there the pay and
provisions of an army. Some part of this surplus, however, may
still continue to bring back a return. The manufacturers, during
the war, will have a double demand upon them, and be called upon,
first, to work up goods to be sent abroad, for paying the bills
drawn upon foreign countries for the pay and provisions of the
army; and, secondly, to work up such as are necessary for
purchasing the common returns that had usually been consumed in
the country. In the midst of the most destructive foreign war,
therefore, the greater part of manufactures may frequently
flourish greatly; and, on the contrary, they may decline on the
return of the peace. They may flourish amidst the ruin of their
country, and begin to decay upon the return of its prosperity.
The different state of many different branches of the British
manufactures during the late war, and for some time after the
peace, may serve as an illustration of what has been just now
said.
     No foreign war of great expense or duration could
conveniently be carried on by the exportation of the rude produce
of the soil. The expense of sending such a quantity of it to a
foreign country as might purchase the pay and provisions of an
army would be too great. Few countries produce much more rude
produce than what is sufficient for the subsistence of their own
inhabitants. To send abroad any great quantity of it, therefore,
would be to send abroad a part of the necessary subsistence of
the people. It is otherwise with the exportation of manufactures.
The maintenance of the people employed in them is kept at home,
and only the surplus part of their work is exported. Mr. Hume
frequently takes notice of the inability of the ancient kings of
England to carry on, without interruption, any foreign war of
long duration. The English, in those days, had nothing
wherewithal to purchase the pay and provisions of their armies in
foreign countries, but either the rude produce of the soil, of
which no considerable part could be spared from the home
consumption, or a few manufactures of the coarsest kind, of
which, as well as of the rude produce, the transportation was too
expensive. This inability did not arise from the want of money,
but of the finer and more improved manufactures. Buying and
selling was transacted by means of money in England then as well
as now. The quantity of circulating money must have borne the
same proportion to the number and value of purchases and sales
usually transacted at that time, which it does to those
transacted at present; or rather it must have borne a greater
proportion, because there was then no paper, which now occupies a
great part of the employment of gold and silver. Among nations to
whom commerce and manufactures are little known, the sovereign,
upon extraordinary occasions, can seldom draw any considerable
aid from his subjects, for reasons which shall be explained
hereafter. It is in such countries, therefore, that he generally
endeavours to accumulate a treasure, as the only resource against
such emergencies. Independent of this necessity, he is in such a
situation naturally disposed to the parsimony requisite for
accumulation. In that simple state, the expense even of a
sovereign is not directed by the vanity which delights in the
gaudy finery of a court, but is employed in bounty to his
tenants, and hospitality to his retainers. But bounty and
hospitality very seldom lead to extravagance; though vanity
almost always does. Every Tartar chief, accordingly, has a
treasure. The treasures of Mazepa, chief of the Cossacs in the
Ukraine, the famous ally of Charles the XII, are said to have
been very great. The French kings of the Merovingian race all had
treasures. When they divided their kingdom among their different
children, they divided their treasure too. The Saxon princes, and
the first kings after the Conquest, seem likewise to have
accumulated treasures. The first exploit of every new reign was
commonly to seize the treasure of the preceding king, as the most
essential measure for securing the succession. The sovereigns of
improved and commercial countries are not under the same
necessity of accumulating treasures, because they can generally
draw from their subjects extraordinary aids upon extraordinary
occasions. They are likewise less disposed to do so. They
naturally, perhaps necessarily, follow the mode of the times, and
their expense comes to be regulated by the same extravagant
vanity which directs that of all the other great proprietors in
their dominions. The insignificant pageantry of their court
becomes every day more brilliant, and the expense of it not only
prevents accumulation, but frequently encroaches upon the funds
destined for more necessary expenses. What Dercyllidas said of
the court of Persia may be applied to that of several European
princes, that he saw there much splendour but little strength,
and many servants but few soldiers.
     The importation of gold and silver is not the principal,
much less the sole benefit which a nation derives from its
foreign trade. Between whatever places foreign trade is carried
on, they all of them derive two distinct benefits from it. It
carries out that surplus part of the produce of their land and
labour for which there is no demand among them, and brings back
in return for it something else for which there is a demand. It
gives a value to their superfluities, by exchanging them for
something else, which may satisfy a part of their wants, and
increase their enjoyments. By means of it the narrowness of the
home market does not hinder the division of labour in any
particular branch of art or manufacture from being carried to the
highest perfection. By opening a more extensive market for
whatever part of the produce of their labour may exceed the home
consumption, it encourages them to improve its productive powers,
and to augment its annual produce to the utmost, and thereby to
increase the real revenue and wealth of the society. These great
and important services foreign trade is continually occupied in
performing to all the different countries between which it is
carried on. They all derive great benefit from it, though that in
which the merchant resides generally derives the greatest, as he
is generally more employed in supplying the wants, and carrying
out the superfluities of his own, than of any other particular
country. To import the gold and silver which may be wanted into
the countries which have no mines is, no doubt, a part of the
business of foreign commerce. It is, however, a most
insignificant part of it. A country which carried on foreign
trade merely upon this account could scarce have occasion to
freight a ship in a century.
     It is not by the importation of gold and silver that the
discovery of America has enriched Europe. By the abundance of the
American mines, those metals have become cheaper. A service of
plate can now be purchased for about a third part of the corn, or
a third part of the labour, which it would have cost in the
fifteenth century. With the same annual expense of labour and
commodities, Europe can annually purchase about three times the
quantity of plate which it could have purchased at that time. But
when a commodity comes to be sold for a third part of what had
been its usual price, not only those who purchased it before can
purchase three times their former quantity, but it is brought
down to the level of a much greater number of purchasers, perhaps
to more than ten, perhaps to more than twenty times the former
number. So that there may be in Europe at present not only more
than three times, but more than twenty or thirty times the
quantity of plate which would have been in it, even in its
present state of improvement, had the discovery of the American
mines never been made. So far Europe has, no doubt, gained a real
conveniency, though surely a very trifling one. The cheapness of
gold and silver renders those metals rather less fit for the
purposes of money than they were before. In order to make the
same purchases, we must load ourselves with a greater quantity of
them, and carry about a shilling in our pocket where a groat
would have done before. It is difficult to say which is most
trifling, this inconveniency or the opposite conveniency. Neither
the one nor the other could have made any very essential change
in the state of Europe. The discovery of America, however,
certainly made a most essential one. By opening a new and
inexhaustible market to all the commodities of Europe, it gave
occasion to new divisions of labour and improvements of art,
which in the narrow circle of the ancient commerce, could never
have taken place for want of a market to take off the greater
part of their produce. The productive powers of labour were
improved, and its produce increased in all the different
countries of Europe, and together with it the real revenue and
wealth of the inhabitants. The commodities of Europe were almost
all new to America, and many of those of America were new to
Europe. A new set of exchanges, therefore, began to take place
which had never been thought of before, and which should
naturally have proved as advantageous to the new, as it certainly
did to the old continent. The savage injustice of the Europeans
rendered an event, which ought to have been beneficial to all,
ruinous and destructive to several of those unfortunate
countries.
     The discovery of a passage to the East Indies by the Cape of
Good Hope, which happened much about the same time, opened
perhaps a still more extensive range to foreign commerce than
even that of America, notwithstanding the greater distance. There
were but two nations in America in any respect superior to
savages, and these were destroyed almost as soon as discovered.
The rest were mere savages. But the empires of China, Indostan,
Japan, as well as several others in the East Indies, without
having richer mines of gold or silver, were in every other
respect much richer, better cultivated, and more advanced in all
arts and manufactures than either Mexico or Peru, even though we
should credit, what plainly deserves no credit, the exaggerated
accounts of the Spanish writers concerning the ancient state of
those empires. But rich and civilised nations can always exchange
to a much greater value with one another than with savages and
barbarians. Europe, however, has hitherto derived much less
advantage from its commerce with the East Indies than from that
with America. The Portuguese monopolized the East India trade to
themselves for about a century, and it was only indirectly and
through them that the other nations of Europe could either send
out or receive any goods from that country. When the Dutch, in
the beginning of the last century, began to encroach upon them,
they vested their whole East India commerce in an exclusive
company. The English, French, Swedes, and Danes have all followed
their example, so that no great nation in Europe has ever yet had
the benefit of a free commerce to the East Indies. No other
reason need be assigned why it has never been so advantageous as
the trade to America, which, between almost every nation of
Europe and its own colonies, is free to all its subjects. The
exclusive privileges of those East India companies, their great
riches, the great favour and protection which these have procured
them from their respective governments, have excited much envy
against them. This envy has frequently represented their trade as
altogether pernicious, on account of the great quantities of
silver which it every year exports from the countries from which
it is carried on. The parties concerned have replied that their
trade, by this continual exportation of silver, might indeed tend
to impoverish Europe in general, but not the particular country
from which it was carried on; because, by the exportation of a
part of the returns to other European countries, it annually
brought home a much greater quantity of that metal than it
carried out. Both the objection and the reply are founded in the
popular notion which I have been just now examining. It is
therefore unnecessary to say anything further about either. By
the annual exportation of silver to the East Indies, plate is
probably somewhat dearer in Europe than it otherwise might have
been; and coined silver probably purchases a larger quantity both
of labour and commodities. The former of these two effects is a
very small loss, the latter a very small advantage; both too
insignificant to deserve any part of the public attention. The
trade to the East Indies, by opening a market to the commodities
of Europe, or, what comes nearly to the same thing, to the gold
and silver which is purchased with those commodities, must
necessarily tend to increase the annual production of European
commodities, and consequently the real wealth and revenue of
Europe. That it has hitherto increased them so little is probably
owing to the restraints which it everywhere labours under.
     I thought it necessary, though at the hazard of being
tedious, to examine at full length this popular notion that
wealth consists in money, or in gold and silver. Money in common
language, as I have already observed, frequently signifies
wealth, and this ambiguity of expression has rendered this
popular notion so familiar to us that even they who are convinced
of its absurdity are very apt to forget their own principles, and
in the course of their reasonings to take it for granted as a
certain and undeniable truth. Some of the best English writers
upon commerce set out with observing that the wealth of a country
consists, not in its gold and silver only, but in its lands,
houses, and consumable goods of all different kinds. In the
course of their reasonings, however, the lands, houses, and
consumable goods seem to slip out of their memory, and the strain
of their argument frequently supposes that all wealth consists in
gold and silver, and that to multiply those metals is the great
object of national industry and commerce.
     The two principles being established, however, that wealth
consisted in gold and silver, and that those metals could be
brought into a country which had no mines only by the balance of
trade, or by exporting to a greater value than it imported, it
necessarily became the great object of political economy to
diminish as much as possible the importation of foreign goods for
home consumption, and to increase as much as possible the
exportation of the produce of domestic industry. Its two great
engines for enriching the country, therefore, were restraints
upon importation, and encouragements to exportation.
     The restraints upon importation were of two kinds.
     First, restraints upon the importation of such foreign goods
for home consumption as could be produced at home, from whatever
country they were imported.
     Secondly, restraints upon the importation of goods of almost
all kinds from those particular countries with which the balance
of trade was supposed to be disadvantageous.
     Those different restraints consisted sometimes in high
duties, and sometimes in absolute prohibitions.
     Exportation was encouraged sometimes by drawbacks, sometimes
by bounties, sometimes by advantageous treaties of commerce with
foreign states, and sometimes by the establishment of colonies in
distant countries.
     Drawbacks were given upon two different occasions. When the
home manufactures were subject to any duty or excise, either the
whole or a part of it was frequently drawn back upon their
exportation; and when foreign goods liable to a duty were
imported in order to be exported again, either the whole or a
part of this duty was sometimes given back upon such exportation.
     Bounties were given for the encouragement either of some
beginning manufactures, or of such sorts of industry of other
kinds as supposed to deserve particular favour.
     By advantageous treaties of commerce, particular privileges
were procured in some foreign state for the goods and merchants
of the country, beyond what were granted to those other
countries.
     By established establishment of colonies in distant
countries, not only particular privileges, but a monopoly was
frequently procured for the goods and merchants of the country
which established them.
     The two sorts of restraints upon importation
above-mentioned, together with these four encouragements to
exportation, constitute the six principal means by which the
commercial system proposes to increase the quantity of gold and
silver in any country by turning the balance of trade in its
favour. I shall consider each of them in a particular chapter,
and without taking much further notice of their supposed tendency
to bring money into the country, I shall examine chiefly what are
likely to be the effects of each of them upon the annual produce
of its industry. According as they tend either to increase or
diminish the value of this annual produce, they must evidently
tend either to increase or diminish the real wealth and revenue
of the country.

                             CHAPTER II

Of Restraints upon the Importation from Foreign Countries of such
Goods as can be produced at Home 

     BY restraining, either by high duties or by absolute
prohibitions, the importation of such goods from foreign
countries as can be produced at home, the monopoly of the home
market is more or less secured to the domestic industry employed
in producing them. Thus the prohibition of importing either live
cattle or salt provisions from foreign countries secures to the
graziers of Great Britain the monopoly of the home market for
butcher's meat. The high duties upon the importation of corn,
which in times of moderate plenty amount to a prohibition, give a
like advantage to the growers of that commodity. The prohibition
of the importation of foreign woollens is equally favourable to
the woollen manufacturers. The silk manufacture, though
altogether employed upon foreign materials, has lately obtained
the same advantage. The linen manufacture has not yet obtained
it, but is making great strides towards it. Many other sorts of
manufacturers have, in the same manner, obtained in Great
Britain, either altogether or very nearly, a monopoly against
their countrymen. The variety of goods of which the importation
into Great Britain is prohibited, either absolutely, or under
certain circumstances, greatly exceeds what can easily be
suspected by those who are not well acquainted with the laws of
the customs.
     That this monopoly of the home market frequently gives great
encouragement to that particular species of industry which enjoys
it, and frequently turns towards that employment a greater share
of both the labour and stock of the society than would otherwise
have gone to it, cannot be doubted. But whether it tends either
to increase the general industry of the society, or to give it
the most advantageous direction, is not, perhaps, altogether so
evident.
     The general industry of the society never can exceed what
the capital of the society can employ. As the number of workmen
that can be kept in employment by any particular person must bear
a certain proportion to his capital, so the number of those that
can be continually employed by all the members of a great society
must bear a certain proportion to the whole capital of that
society, and never can exceed that proportion. No regulation of
commerce can increase the quantity of industry in any society
beyond what its capital can maintain. It can only divert a part
of it into a direction into which it might not otherwise have
gone; and it is by no means certain that this artificial
direction is likely to be more advantageous to the society than
that into which it would have gone of its own accord.
     Every individual is continually exerting himself to find out
the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he can
command. It is his own advantage, indeed, and not that of the
society, which he has in view. But the study of his own advantage
naturally, or rather necessarily, leads him to prefer that
employment which is most advantageous to the society.
     First, every individual endeavours to employ his capital as
near home as he can, and consequently as much as he can in the
support of domestic industry; provided always that he can thereby
obtain the ordinary, or not a great deal less than the ordinary
profits of stock.
     Thus, upon equal or nearly equal profits, every wholesale
merchant naturally prefers the home trade to the foreign trade of
consumption, and the foreign trade of consumption to the carrying
trade. In the home trade his capital is never so long out of his
sight as it frequently is in the foreign trade of consumption. He
can know better the character and situation of the persons whom
he trusts, and if he should happen to be deceived, he knows
better the laws of the country from which he must seek redress.
In the carrying trade, the capital of the merchant is, as it
were, divided between two foreign countries, and no part of it is
ever necessarily brought home, or placed under his own immediate
view and command. The capital which an Amsterdam merchant employs
in carrying corn from Konigsberg to Lisbon, and fruit and wine
from Lisbon to Konigsberg, must generally be the one half of it
at Konigsberg and the other half at Lisbon. No part of it need
ever come to Amsterdam. The natural residence of such a merchant
should either be at Konigsberg or Lisbon, and it can only be some
very particular circumstances which can make him prefer the
residence of Amsterdam. The uneasiness, however, which he feels
at being separated so far from his capital generally determines
him to bring part both of the Konigsberg goods which he destines
for the market of Lisbon, and of the Lisbon goods which he
destines for that of Konigsberg, to Amsterdam: and though this
necessarily subjects him to a double charge of loading and
unloading, as well as to the payment of some duties and customs,
yet for the sake of having some part of his capital always under
his own view and command, he willingly submits to this
extraordinary charge; and it is in this manner that every country
which has any considerable share of the carrying trade becomes
always the emporium, or general market, for the goods of all the
different countries whose trade it carries on. The merchant, in
order to save a second loading and unloading, endeavours always
to sell in the home market as much of the goods of all those
different countries as he can, and thus, so far as he can, to
convert his carrying trade into a foreign trade of consumption. A
merchant, in the same manner, who is engaged in the foreign trade
of consumption, when he collects goods for foreign markets, will
always be glad, upon equal or nearly equal profits, to sell as
great a part of them at home as he can. He saves himself the risk
and trouble of exportation, when, so far as he can, he thus
converts his foreign trade of consumption into a home trade. Home
is in this manner the centre, if I may say so, round which the
capitals of the inhabitants of every country are continually
circulating, and towards which they are always tending, though by
particular causes they may sometimes be driven off and repelled
from it towards more distant employments. But a capital employed
in the home trade, it has already been shown, necessarily puts
into motion a greater quantity of domestic industry, and gives
revenue and employment to a greater number of the inhabitants of
the country, than an equal capital employed in the foreign trade
of consumption: and one employed in the foreign trade of
consumption has the same advantage over an equal capital employed
in the carrying trade. Upon equal, or only nearly equal profits,
therefore, every individual naturally inclines to employ his
capital in the manner in which it is likely to afford the
greatest support to domestic industry, and to give revenue and
employment to the greatest number of people of his own country.
     Secondly, every individual who employs his capital in the
support of domestic industry, necessarily endeavours so to direct
that industry that its produce may be of the greatest possible
value.
     The produce of industry is what it adds to the subject or
materials upon which it is employed. In proportion as the value
of this produce is great or small, so will likewise be the
profits of the employer. But it is only for the sake of profit
that any man employs a capital in the support of industry; and he
will always, therefore, endeavour to employ it in the support of
that industry of which the produce is likely to be of the
greatest value, or to exchange for the greatest quantity either
of money or of other goods.
     But the annual revenue of every society is always precisely
equal to the exchangeable value of the whole annual produce of
its industry, or rather is precisely the same thing with that
exchangeable value. As every individual, therefore, endeavours as
much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of
domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its
produce may be of the greatest value; every individual
necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society
as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to
promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting
it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign
industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that
industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest
value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in
many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end
which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse
for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own
interest he frequently promotes that of the society more
effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have
never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the
public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among
merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them
from it.
     What is the species of domestic industry which his capital
can employ, and of which the produce is likely to be of the
greatest value, every individual, it is evident, can, in his
local situation, judge much better than any statesman or lawgiver
can do for him. The statesman who should attempt to direct
private people in what manner they ought to employ their capitals
would not only load himself with a most unnecessary attention,
but assume an authority which could safely be trusted, not only
to no single person, but to no council or senate whatever, and
which would nowhere be so dangerous as in the hands of a man who
had folly and presumption enough to fancy himself fit to exercise
it.
     To give the monopoly of the home market to the produce of
domestic industry, in any particular art or manufacture, is in
some measure to direct private people in what manner they ought
to employ their capitals, and must, in almost all cases, be
either a useless or a hurtful regulation. If the produce of
domestic can be brought there as cheap as that of foreign
industry, the regulation is evidently useless. If it cannot, it
must generally be hurtful. It is the maxim of every prudent
master of a family never to attempt to make at home what it will
cost him more to make than to buy. The tailor does not attempt to
make his own shoes, but buys them of the shoemaker. The shoemaker
does not attempt to make his own clothes, but employs a tailor.
The farmer attempts to make neither the one nor the other, but
employs those different artificers. All of them find it for their
interest to employ their whole industry in a way in which they
have some advantage over their neighbours, and to purchase with a
part of its produce, or what is the same thing, with the price of
a part of it, whatever else they have occasion for.
     What is prudence in the conduct of every private family can
scarce be folly in that of a great kingdom. If a foreign country
can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make
it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our
own industry employed in a way in which we have some advantage.
The general industry of the country, being always in proportion
to the capital which employs it, will not thereby be diminished,
no more than that of the above-mentioned artificers; but only
left to find out the way in which it can be employed with the
greatest advantage. It is certainly not employed to the greatest
advantage when it is thus directed towards an object which it can
buy cheaper than it can make. The value of its annual produce is
certainly more or less diminished when it is thus turned away
from producing commodities evidently of more value than the
commodity which it is directed to produce. According to the
supposition, that commodity could be purchased from foreign
countries cheaper than it can be made at home. It could,
therefore, have been purchased with a part only of the
commodities, or, what is the same thing, with a part only of the
price of the commodities, which the industry employed by an equal
capital would have produced at home, had it been left to follow
its natural course. The industry of the country, therefore, is
thus turned away from a more to a less advantageous employment,
and the exchangeable value of its annual produce, instead of
being increased, according to the intention of the lawgiver, must
necessarily be diminished by every such regulation.
     By means of such regulations, indeed, a particular
manufacture may sometimes be acquired sooner than it could have
been otherwise, and after a certain time may be made at home as
cheap or cheaper than in the foreign country. But though the
industry of the society may be thus carried with advantage into a
particular channel sooner than it could have been otherwise, it
will by no means follow that the sum total, either of its
industry, or of its revenue, can ever be augmented by any such
regulation. The industry of the society can augment only in
proportion as its capital augments, and its capital can augment
only in proportion to what can be gradually saved out of its
revenue. But the immediate effect of every such regulation is to
diminish its revenue, and what diminishes its revenue is
certainly not very likely to augment its capital faster than it
would have augmented of its own accord had both capital and
industry been left to find out their natural employments.
     Though for want of such regulations the society should never
acquire the proposed manufacture, it would not, upon that
account, necessarily be the poorer in any one period of its
duration. In every period of its duration its whole capital and
industry might still have been employed, though upon different
objects, in the manner that was most advantageous at the time. In
every period its revenue might have been the greatest which its
capital could afford, and both capital and revenue might have
been augmented with the greatest possible rapidity.
     The natural advantages which one country has over another in
producing particular commodities are sometimes so great that it
is acknowledged by all the world to be in vain to struggle with
them. By means of glasses, hotbeds, and hot walls, very good
grapes can be raised in Scotland, and very good wine too can be
made of them at about thirty times the expense for which at least
equally good can be brought from foreign countries. Would it be a
reasonable law to prohibit the importation of all foreign wines
merely to encourage the making of claret and burgundy in
Scotland? But if there would be a manifest absurdity in turning
towards any employment thirty times more of the capital and
industry of the country than would be necessary to purchase from
foreign countries an equal quantity of the commodities wanted,
there must be an absurdity, though not altogether so glaring, yet
exactly of the same kind, in turning towards any such employment
a thirtieth, or even a three-hundredth part more of either.
Whether the advantages which one country has over another be
natural or acquired is in this respect of no consequence. As long
as the one country has those advantages, and the other wants
them, it will always be more advantageous for the latter rather
to buy of the former than to make. It is an acquired advantage
only, which one artificer has over his neighbour, who exercises
another trade; and yet they both find it more advantageous to buy
of one another than to make what does not belong to their
particular trades.
     Merchants and manufacturers are the people who derive the
greatest advantage from this monopoly of the home market. The
prohibition of the importation of foreign cattle, and of salt
provisions, together with the high duties upon foreign corn,
which in times of moderate plenty amount to a prohibition, are
not near so advantageous to the graziers and farmers of Great
Britain as other regulations of the same kind are to its
merchants and manufacturers. Manufactures, those of the finer
kind especially, are more easily transported from one country to
another than corn or cattle. It is in the fetching and carrying
manufactures, accordingly, that foreign trade is chiefly
employed. In manufactures, a very small advantage will enable
foreigners to undersell our own workmen, even in the home market.
It will require a very great one to enable them to do so in the
rude produce of the soil. If the free importation of foreign
manufactures were permitted, several of the home manufactures
would probably suffer, and some of them, perhaps, go to ruin
altogether, and a considerable part of the stock and industry at
present employed in them would be forced to find out some other
employment. But the freest importation of the rude produce of the
soil could have no such effect upon the agriculture of the
country.
     If the importation of foreign cattle, for example, were made
ever so free, so few could be imported that the grazing trade of
Great Britain could be little affected by it. Live cattle are,
perhaps, the only commodity of which the transportation is more
expensive by sea than by land. By land they carry themselves to
market. By sea, not only the cattle, but their food and their
water too, must be carried at no small expense and inconveniency.
The short sea between Ireland and Great Britain, indeed, renders
the importation of Irish cattle more easy. But though the free
importation of them, which was lately permitted only for a
limited time, were rendered perpetual, it could have no
considerable effect upon the interest of the graziers of Great
Britain. Those parts of Great Britain which border upon the Irish
Sea are all grazing countries. Irish cattle could never be
imported for their use, but must be driven through those very
extensive countries, at no small expense and inconveniency,
before they could arrive at their proper market. Fat cattle could
not be driven so far. Lean cattle, therefore, only could be
imported, and such importation could interfere, not with the
interest of the feeding or fattening countries, to which, by
reducing the price of lean cattle, it would rather be
advantageous, but with that of the breeding countries only. The
small number of Irish cattle imported since their importation was
permitted, together with the good price at which lean cattle
still continue to sell, seem to demonstrate that even the
breeding countries of Great Britain are never likely to be much
affected by the free importation of Irish cattle. The common
people of Ireland, indeed, are said to have sometimes opposed
with violence the exportation of their cattle. But if the
exporters had found any great advantage in continuing the trade,
they could easily, when the law was on their side, have conquered
this mobbish opposition.
     Feeding and fattening countries, besides, must always be
highly improved, whereas breeding countries are generally
uncultivated. The high price of lean cattle, by augmenting the
value of uncultivated land, is like a bounty against improvement.
To any country which was highly improved throughout, it would be
more advantageous to import its lean cattle than to breed them.
The province of Holland, accordingly, is said to follow this
maxim at present. The mountains of Scotland, Wales, and
Northumberland, indeed, are countries not capable of much
improvement, and seem destined by nature to be the breeding
countries of Great Britain. The freest importation of foreign
cattle could have no other effect than to hinder those breeding
countries from taking advantage of the increasing population and
improvement of the rest of the kingdom, from raising their price
to an exorbitant height, and from laying a real tax upon all the
more improved and cultivated parts of the country.
     The freest importation of salt provisions, in the same
manner, could have as little effect upon the interest of the
graziers of Great Britain as that of live cattle. Salt provisions
are not only a very bulky commodity, but when compared with fresh
meat, they are a commodity both of worse quality, and as they
cost more labour and expense, of higher price. They could never,
therefore, come into competition with the fresh meat, though they
might with the salt provisions of the country. They might be used
for victualling ships for distant voyages and such like uses, but
could never make any considerable part of the food of the people.
The small quantity of salt provisions imported from Ireland since
their importation was rendered free is an experimental proof that
our graziers have nothing to apprehend from it. It does not
appear that the price of butcher's meat has ever been sensibly
affected by it.
     Even the free importation of foreign corn could very little
affect the interest of the farmers of Great Britain. Corn is a
much more bulky commodity than butcher's meat. A pound of wheat
at a penny is as dear as a pound of butcher's meat at fourpence.
The small quantity of foreign corn imported even in times of the
greatest scarcity may satisfy our farmers that they can have
nothing to fear from the freest importation. The average quantity
imported, one year with another, amounts only, according to the
very well informed author of the tracts upon the corn trade, to
twenty-three thousand seven hundred and twenty-eight quarters of
all sorts of grain, and does not exceed the five hundred and
seventy-first part of the annual consumption. But as the bounty
upon corn occasions a greater exportation in years of plenty, so
it must of consequence occasion a greater importation in years of
scarcity than in the actual state of tillage would otherwise take
place. By means of it the plenty of one year does not compensate
the scarcity of another, and as the average quantity exported is
necessarily augmented by it, so must likewise, in the actual
state of tillage, the average quantity imported. If there were no
bounty, as less corn would be exported, so it is probable that,
one year with another, less would be imported than at present.
The corn-merchants, the fetchers and carriers of corn between
Great Britain and foreign countries would have much less
employment, and might suffer considerably; but the country
gentlemen and farmers could suffer very little. It is in the corn
merchants accordingly, rather than in the country gentlemen and
farmers, that I have observed the greatest anxiety for the
renewal and continuation of the bounty.
     Country gentlemen and farmers are, to their great honour, of
all people, the least subject to the wretched spirit of monopoly.
The undertaker of a great manufactory is sometimes alarmed if
another work of the same kind is established within twenty miles
of him. The Dutch undertaker of the woollen manufacture at
Abbeville stipulated that no work of the same kind should be
established within thirty leagues of that city. Farmers and
country gentlemen, on the contrary, are generally disposed rather
to promote than to obstruct the cultivation and improvement of
their neighbours' farms and estates. They have no secrets such as
those of the greater part of manufacturers, but are generally
rather fond of communicating to their neighbours and of extending
as far as possible any new practice which they have found to be
advantageous. Pius Questus, says old Cato, stabilissimusque,
minimeque invidiosus; minimeque male cogitantes sunt, qui in eo
studio occupati sunt. Country gentlemen and farmers, dispersed in
different parts of the country, cannot so easily combine as
merchants and manufacturers, who, being collected into towns, and
accustomed to that exclusive corporation spirit which prevails in
them, naturally endeavour to obtain against all their countrymen
the same exclusive privilege which they generally possess against
the inhabitants of their respective towns. They accordingly seem
to have been the original inventors of those restraints upon the
importation of foreign goods which secure to them the monopoly of
the home market. It was probably in imitation of them, and to put
themselves upon a level with those who, they found, were disposed
to oppress them, that the country gentlemen and farmers of Great
Britain in so far forgot the generosity which is natural to their
station as to demand the exclusive privilege of supplying their
countrymen with corn and butcher's meat. They did not perhaps
take time to consider how much less their interest could be
affected by the freedom of trade than that of the people whose
example they followed.
     To prohibit by a perpetual law the importation of foreign
corn and cattle is in reality to enact that the population and
industry of the country shall at no time exceed what the rude
produce of its own soil can maintain.
     There seem, however, to be two cases in which it will
generally be advantageous to lay some burden upon foreign for the
encouragement of domestic industry.
     The first is, when some particular sort of industry is
necessary for the defence of the country. The defence of Great
Britain, for example, depends very much upon the number of its
sailors and shipping. The Act of Navigation, therefore, very
properly endeavours to give the sailors and shipping of Great
Britain the monopoly of the trade of their own country in some
cases by absolute prohibitions and in others by heavy burdens
upon the shipping of foreign countries. The following are the
principal dispositions of this Act.
     First, all ships, of which the owners and three-fourths of
the mariners are not British subjects, are prohibited, upon pain
of forfeiting ship and cargo, from trading to the British
settlements and plantations, or from being employed in the
coasting trade of Great Britain.
     Secondly, a great variety of the most bulky articles of
importation can be brought into Great Britain only, either in
such ships as are above described, or in ships of the country
where those goods are purchased, and of which the owners,
masters, and three-fourths of the mariners are of that particular
country; and when imported even in ships of this latter kind,
they are subject to double aliens' duty. If imported in ships of
any other country, the penalty is forfeiture of ship and goods.
When this act was made, the Dutch were, what they still are, the
great carriers of Europe, and by this regulation they were
entirely excluded from being the carriers to Great Britain, or
from importing to us the goods of any other European country.
     Thirdly, a great variety of the most bulky articles of
importation are prohibited from being imported, even in British
ships, from any country but that in which they are produced,
under pains of forfeiting ship and cargo. This regulation, too,
was probably intended against the Dutch. Holland was then, as
now, the great emporium for all European goods, and by this
regulation British ships were hindered from loading in Holland
the goods of any other European country.
     Fourthly, salt fish of all kinds, whale-fins, whale-bone,
oil, and blubber, not caught by and cured on board British
vessels, when imported into Great Britain, are subjected to
double aliens' duty. The Dutch, as they are they the principal,
were then the only fishers in Europe that attempted to supply
foreign nations with fish. By this regulation, a very heavy
burden was laid upon their supplying Great Britain.
     When the Act of Navigation was made, though England and
Holland were not actually at war, the most violent animosity
subsisted between the two nations. It had begun during the
government of the Long Parliament, which first framed this act,
and it broke out soon after in the Dutch wars during that of the
Protector and of Charles the Second. It is not impossible,
therefore, that some of the regulations of this famous act may
have proceeded from national animosity. They are as wise,
however, as if they had all been dictated by the most deliberate
wisdom. National animosity at that particular time aimed at the
very same object which the most deliberate wisdom would have
recommended, the diminution of the naval power of Holland, the
only naval power which could endanger the security of England.
     The Act of Navigation is not favourable to foreign commerce,
or to the growth of that opulence which can arise from it. The
interest of a nation in its commercial relations to foreign
nations is, like that of a merchant with regard to the different
people with whom he deals, to buy as cheap and to sell as dear as
possible. But it will be most likely to buy cheap, when by the
most perfect freedom of trade it encourages all nations to bring
to it the goods which it has occasion to purchase; and, for the
same reason, it will be most likely to sell dear, when its
markets are thus filled with the greatest number of buyers. The
Act of Navigation, it is true, lays no burden upon foreign ships
that come to export the produce of British industry. Even the
ancient aliens' duty, which used to be paid upon all goods
exported as well as imported, has, by several subsequent acts,
been taken off from the greater part of the articles of
exportation. But if foreigners, either by prohibitions or high
duties, are hindered from coming to sell, they cannot always
afford to come to buy; because coming without a cargo, they must
lose the freight from their own country to Great Britain. By
diminishing the number of sellers, therefore, we necessarily
diminish that of buyers, and are thus likely not only to buy
foreign goods dearer, but to sell our own cheaper, than if there
was a more perfect freedom of trade. As defence, however it is of
much more importance than opulence, the Act of Navigation is,
perhaps, the wisest of all the commercial regulations of England.
     The second case, in which it will generally be advantageous
to lay some burden upon foreign for the encouragement of domestic
industry is, when some tax is imposed at home upon the produce of
the latter. In this case, it seems reasonable that an equal tax
should be imposed upon the like produce of the former. This would
not give the monopoly of the home market to domestic industry,
nor turn towards a particular employment a greater share of the
stock and labour of the country than what would naturally go to
it. It would only hinder any part of what would naturally go to
it from being turned away by the tax into a less natural
direction, and would leave the competition between foreign and
domestic industry, after the tax, as nearly as possible upon the
same footing as before it. In Great Britain, when any such tax is
laid upon the produce of domestic industry, it is usual at the
same time, in order to stop the clamorous complaints of our
merchants and manufacturers that they will be undersold at home,
to lay a much heavier duty upon the importation of all foreign
goods of the same kind.
     This second limitation of the freedom of trade according to
some people should, upon some occasions, be extended much farther
than to the precise foreign commodities which could come into
competition with those which had been taxed at home. When the
necessaries of life have been taxed any country, it becomes
proper, they pretend, to tax not only the like necessaries of
life imported from other countries, but all sorts of foreign
goods which can come into competition with anything that is the
produce of domestic industry. Subsistence, they say, becomes
necessarily dearer in consequence of such taxes; and the price of
labour must always rise with the price of the labourers'
subsistence. Every commodity, therefore, which is the produce of
domestic industry, though not immediately taxed itself, becomes
dearer in consequence of such taxes, because the labour which
produces it becomes so. Such taxes, therefore, are really
equivalent, they say, to a tax upon every particular commodity
produced at home. In order to put domestic upon the same footing
with foreign industry, therefore, it becomes necessary, they
think, to lay some duty upon every foreign commodity equal to
this enhancement of the price of the home commodities with which
it can come into competition.
     Whether taxes upon the necessaries of life, such as those in
Great Britain upon soap, salt, leather, candles, etc.,
necessarily raise the price of labour, and consequently that of
all other commodities, I shall consider hereafter when I come to
treat of taxes. Supposing, however, in the meantime, that they
have this effect, and they have it undoubtedly, this general
enhancement of the price of all commodities, in consequence of
that of labour, is a case which differs in the two following
respects from that of a particular commodity of which the price
was enhanced by a particular tax immediately imposed upon it.
     First, it might always be known with great exactness how far
the price of such a commodity could be enhanced by such a tax:
but how far the general enhancement of the price of labour might
affect that of every different commodity about which labour was
employed could never be known with any tolerable exactness. It
would be impossible, therefore, to proportion with any tolerable
exactness the tax upon every foreign to this enhancement of the
price of every home commodity.
     Secondly, taxes upon the necessaries of life have nearly the
same effect upon the circumstances of the people as a poor soil
and a bad climate. Provisions are thereby rendered dearer in the
same manner as if it required extraordinary labour and expense to
raise them. As in the natural scarcity arising from soil and
climate it would be absurd to direct the people in what manner
they ought to employ their capitals and industry, so is it
likewise in the artificial scarcity arising from such taxes. To
be left to accommodate, as well as they could, their industry to
their situation, and to find out those employments in which,
notwithstanding their unfavourable circumstances, they might have
some advantage either in the home or in the foreign market, is
what in both cases would evidently be most for their advantage.
To lay a new tax upon them, because they are already overburdened
with taxes, and because they already pay too dear for the
necessaries of life, to make them likewise pay too dear for the
greater part of other commodities, is certainly a most absurd way
of making amends.
     Such taxes, when they have grown up to a certain height, are
a curse equal to the barrenness of the earth and the inclemency
of the heavens; and yet it is in the richest and most industrious
countries that they have been most generally imposed. No other
countries could support so great a disorder. As the strongest
bodies only can live and enjoy health under an unwholesome
regimen, so the nations only that in every sort of industry have
the greatest natural and acquired advantages can subsist and
prosper under such taxes. Holland is the country in Europe in
which they abound most, and which from peculiar circumstances
continues to prosper, not by means of them, as has been most
absurdly supposed, but in spite of them.
     As there are two cases in which it will generally be
advantageous to lay some burden upon foreign for the
encouragement of domestic industry, so there are two others in
which it may sometimes be a matter of deliberation; in the one,
how far it is proper to continue the free importation of certain
foreign goods; and in the other, how far, or in what manner, it
may be proper to restore that free importation after it has been
for some time interrupted.
     The case in which it may sometimes be a matter of
deliberation how far it is proper to continue the free
importation of certain foreign goods is, when some foreign nation
restrains by high duties or prohibitions the importation of some
of our manufactures into their country. Revenge in this case
naturally dictates retaliation, and that we should impose the
like duties and prohibitions upon the importation of some or all
of their manufactures into ours. Nations, accordingly, seldom
fail to retaliate in this manner. The French have been
particularly forward to favour their own manufactures by
restraining the importation of such foreign goods as could come
into competition with them. In this consisted a great part of the
policy of Mr. Colbert, who, notwithstanding his great abilities,
seems in this case to have been imposed upon by the sophistry of
merchants and manufacturers, who are always demanding a monopoly
against their countrymen. It is at present the opinion of the
most intelligent men in France that his operations of this kind
have not been beneficial to his country. That minister, by the
tariff of 1667, imposed very high duties upon a great number of
foreign manufactures. Upon his refusing to moderate them in
favour of the Dutch, they in 1671 prohibited the importation of
the wines, brandies, and manufactures of France. The war of 1672
seems to have been in part occasioned by this commercial dispute.
The peace of Nimeguen put an end to it in 1678 by moderating some
of those duties in favour of the Dutch, who in consequence took
off their prohibition. It was about the same time that the French
and English began mutually to oppress each other's industry by
the like duties and prohibitions, of which the French, however,
seem to have set the first example. The spirit of hostility which
has subsisted between the two nations ever since has hitherto
hindered them from being moderated on either side. In 1697 the
English prohibited the importation of bonelace, the manufacture
of Flanders. The government of that country, at that time under
the dominion of Spain, prohibited in return the importation of
English woollens. In 1700, the prohibition of importing bonelace
into England was taken off upon condition that the importance of
English woollens into Flanders should be put on the same footing
as before.
     There may be good policy in retaliations of this kind, when
there is a probability that they will procure the repeal of the
high duties or prohibitions complained of. The recovery of a
great foreign market will generally more than compensate the
transitory inconveniency of paying dearer during a short time for
some sorts of goods. To judge whether such retaliations are
likely to produce such an effect does not, perhaps, belong so
much to the science of a legislator, whose deliberations ought to
be governed by general principles which are always the same, as
to the skill of that insidious and crafty animal, vulgarly called
a statesman or politician, whose councils are directed by the
momentary fluctuations of affairs. When there is no probability
that any such repeal can be procured, it seems a bad method of
compensating the injury done to certain classes of our people to
do another injury ourselves, not only to those classes, but to
almost all the other classes of them. When our neighbours
prohibit some manufacture of ours, we generally prohibit, not
only the same, for that alone would seldom affect them
considerably, but some other manufacture of theirs. This may no
doubt give encouragement to some particular class of workmen
among ourselves, and by excluding some of their rivals, may
enable them to raise their price in the home market. Those
workmen, however, who suffered by our neighbours' prohibition
will not be benefited by ours. On the contrary, they and almost
all the other classes of our citizens will thereby be obliged to
pay dearer than before for certain goods. Every such law,
therefore, imposes a real tax upon the whole country, not in
favour of that particular class of workmen who were injured by
our neighbours' prohibition, but of some other class.
     The case in which it may sometimes be a matter of
deliberation, how far, or in what manner, it is proper to restore
the free importation of foreign goods, after it has been for some
time interrupted, is, when particular manufactures, by means of
high duties or prohibitions upon all foreign goods which can come
into competition with them, have been so far extended as to
employ a great multitude of hands. Humanity may in this case
require that the freedom of trade should be restored only by slow
gradations, and with a good deal of reserve and circumspection.
Were those high duties and prohibitions taken away all at once,
cheaper foreign goods of the same kind might be poured so fast
into the home market as to deprive all at once many thousands of
our people of their ordinary employment and means of subsistence.
The disorder which this would occasion might no doubt be very
considerable. It would in all probability, however, be much less
than is commonly imagined, for the two following reasons:-
     First, all those manufactures, of which any part is commonly
exported to other European countries without a bounty, could be
very little affected by the freest importation of foreign goods.
Such manufactures must be sold as cheap abroad as any other
foreign goods of the same quality and kind, and consequently must
be sold cheaper at home. They would still, therefore, keep
possession of the home market, and though a capricious man of
fashion might sometimes prefer foreign wares, merely because they
were foreign, to cheaper and better goods of the same kind that
were made at home, this folly could, from the nature of things,
extend to so few that it could make no sensible impression upon
the general employment of the people. But a great part of all the
different branches of our woollen manufacture, of our tanned
leather, and of our hardware, are annually exported to other
European countries without any bounty, and these are the
manufactures which employ the greatest number of hands. The silk,
perhaps, is the manufacture which would suffer the most by this
freedom of trade, and after it the linen, though the latter much
less than the former.
     Secondly, though a great number of people should, by thus
restoring the freedom of trade, be thrown all at once out of
their ordinary employment and common method of subsistence, it
would by no means follow that they would thereby be deprived
either of employment or subsistence. By the reduction of the army
and navy at the end of the late war, more than a hundred thousand
soldiers and seamen, a number equal to what is employed in the
greatest manufactures, were all at once thrown out of their
ordinary employment; but, though they no doubt suffered some
inconveniency, they were not thereby deprived of all employment
and subsistence. The greater part of the seamen, it is probable,
gradually betook themselves to the merchant-service as they could
find occasion, and in the meantime both they and the soldiers
were absorbed in the great mass of the people, and employed in a
great variety of occupations. Not only no great convulsion, but
no sensible disorder arose from so great a change in the
situation of more than a hundred thousand men, all accustomed to
the use of arms, and many of them to rapine and plunder. The
number of vagrants was scarce anywhere sensibly increased by it,
even the wages of labour were not reduced by it in any
occupation, so far as I have been able to learn, except in that
of seamen in the merchant service. But if we compare together the
habits of a soldier and of any sort of manufacturer, we shall
find that those of the latter do not tend so much to disqualify
him from being employed in a new trade, as those of the former
from being employed in any. The manufacturer has always been
accustomed to look for his subsistence from his labour only: the
soldier to expect it from his pay. Application and industry have
been familiar to the one; idleness and dissipation to the other.
But it is surely much easier to change the direction of industry
from one sort of labour to another than to turn idleness and
dissipation to any. To the greater part of manufactures besides,
it has already been observed, there are other collateral
manufactures of so similar a nature that a workman can easily
transfer his industry from one of them to another. The greater
part of such workmen too are occasionally employed in country
labour. The stock which employed them in a particular manufacture
before will still remain in the country to employ an equal number
of people in some other way. The capital of the country remaining
the same, the demand for labour will likewise be the same, or
very nearly the same, though it may be exerted in different
places and for different occupations. Soldiers and seamen,
indeed, when discharged from the king's service, are at liberty
to exercise any trade, within any town or place of Great Britain
or Ireland. Let the same natural liberty of exercising what
species of industry they please, be restored to all his Majesty's
subjects, in the same manner as to soldiers and seamen; that is,
break down the exclusive privileges of corporations, and repeal
the Statute of Apprenticeship, both which are real encroachments
upon natural liberty, and add to these the repeal of the Law of
Settlements, so that a poor workman, when thrown out of
employment either in one trade or in one place, may seek for it
in another trade or in another place without the fear either of a
prosecution or of a removal, and neither the public nor the
individuals will suffer much more from the occasional disbanding
some particular classes of manufacturers than from that of
soldiers. Our manufacturers have no doubt great merit with their
country, but they cannot have more than those who defend it with
their blood, nor deserve to be treated with more delicacy.
     To expect, indeed, that the freedom of trade should ever be
entirely restored in Great Britain is as absurd as to expect that
an Oceana or Utopia should ever be established in it. Not only
the prejudices of the public, but what is much more
unconquerable, the private interests of many individuals,
irresistibly oppose it. Were the officers of the army to oppose
with the same zeal and unanimity any reduction in the numbers of
forces with which master manufacturers set themselves against
every law that is likely to increase the number of their rivals
in the home market; were the former to animate their soldiers in
the same manner as the latter enflame their workmen to attack
with violence and outrage the proposers of any such regulation,
to attempt to reduce the army would be as dangerous as it has now
become to attempt to diminish in any respect the monopoly which
our manufacturers have obtained against us. This monopoly has so
much increased the number of some particular tribes of them that,
like an overgrown standing army, they have become formidable to
the government, and upon many occasions intimidate the
legislature. The Member of Parliament who supports every proposal
for strengthening this monopoly is sure to acquire not only the
reputation of understanding trade, but great popularity and
influence with an order of men whose numbers and wealth render
them of great importance. If he opposes them, on the contrary,
and still more if he has authority enough to be able to thwart
them, neither the most acknowledged probity, nor the highest
rank, nor the greatest public services can protect him from the
most infamous abuse and detraction, from personal insults, nor
sometimes from real danger, arising from the insolent outrage of
furious and disappointed monopolists.
     The undertaker of a great manufacture, who, by the home
markets being suddenly laid open to the competition of
foreigners, should be obliged to abandon his trade, would no
doubt suffer very considerably. That part of his capital which
had usually been employed in purchasing materials and in paying
his workmen might, without much difficulty, perhaps, find another
employment. But that part of it which was fixed in workhouses,
and in the instruments of trade, could scarce be disposed of
without considerable loss. The equitable regard, therefore, to
his interest requires that changes of this kind should never be
introduced suddenly, but slowly, gradually, and after a very long
warning. The legislature, were it possible that its deliberations
could be always directed, not by the clamorous importunity of
partial interests, but by an extensive view of the general good,
ought upon this very account, perhaps, to be particularly careful
neither to establish any new monopolies of this kind, nor to
extend further those which are already established. Every such
regulation introduces some degree of real disorder into the
constitution of the state, which it will be difficult afterwards
to cure without occasioning another disorder.
     How far it may be proper to impose taxes upon the
importation of foreign goods, in order not to prevent their
importation but to raise a revenue for government, I shall
consider hereafter when I come to treat of taxes. Taxes imposed
with a view to prevent, or even to diminish importation, are
evidently as destructive of the revenue of the customs as of the
freedom of trade.

                           CHAPTER III

Of the extraordinary Restraints upon the Importation of Goods of
almost all kinds from those Countries with which the Balance is
supposed to be disadvantageous 

                              PART I
Of the Unreasonableness of those Restraints even upon the
Principles of the Commercial System 

     TO lay extraordinary restraints upon the those particular
countries with which the importation of goods of almost all kinds
from balance of trade is supposed to be disadvantageous, is the
second expedient by which the commercial system proposes to
increase the quantity of gold and silver. Thus in Great Britain,
Silesia lawns may be imported for home consumption upon paying
certain duties. But French cambrics and lawns are prohibited to
be imported, except into the port of London, there to be
warehoused for exportation. Higher duties are imposed upon the
wines of France than upon those of Portugal, or indeed of any
other country. By what is called the impost 1692, a duty of
five-and-twenty per cent of the rate or value was laid upon all
French goods; while the goods of other nations were, the greater
part of them, subjected to much lighter duties, seldom exceeding
five per cent. The wine, brandy, salt and vinegar of France were
indeed excepted; these commodities being subjected to other heavy
duties, either by other laws, or by particular clauses of the
same law. In 1696, a second duty of twenty-five per cent, the
first not having been thought a sufficient discouragement, was
imposed upon all French goods, except brandy; together with a new
duty of five-and-twenty pounds upon the ton of French wine, and
another of fifteen pounds upon the ton of French vinegar. French
goods have never been omitted in any of those general subsidies,
or duties of five per cent, which have been imposed upon all, or
the greater part of the goods enumerated in the book of rates. If
we count the one-third and two-third subsidies as making a
complete subsidy between them, there have been five of these
general subsidies; so that before the commencement of the present
war seventy-five per cent may be considered as the lowest duty to
which the greater part of the goods of the growth, produce, or
manufacture of France were liable. But upon the greater part of
goods, those duties are equivalent to a prohibition. The French
in their turn have, I believe, treated our goods and manufactures
just as hardly; though I am not so well acquainted with the
particular hardships which they have imposed upon them. Those
mutual restraints have put an end to almost all fair commerce
between the two nations, and smugglers are now the principal
importers, either of British goods into France, or of French
goods into Great Britain. The principles which I have been
examining in the foregoing chapter took their origin from private
interest and the spirit of monopoly; those which I am going to
examine in this, from national prejudice and animosity. They are,
accordingly, as might well be expected, still more unreasonable.
They are so, even upon the principles of the commercial system.
     First, though it were certain that in the case of a free
trade between France and England, for example, the balance would
be in favour of France, it would by no means follow that such a
trade would be disadvantageous to England, or that the general
balance of its whole trade would thereby be turned more against
it. If the wines of France are better and cheaper than those of
Portugal, or its linens than those of Germany, it would be more
advantageous for Great Britain to purchase both the wine and the
foreign linen which it had occasion for of France than of
Portugal and Germany. Though the value of the annual importations
from France would thereby be greatly augmented, the value of the
whole annual importations would be diminished, in proportion as
the French goods of the same quality were cheaper than those of
the other two countries. This would be the case, even upon the
supposition that the whole French goods imported were to be
consumed in Great Britain.
     But, secondly, a great part of them might be re-exported to
other countries, where, being sold with profit, they might bring
back a return equal in value, perhaps, to the prime cost of the
whole French goods imported. What has frequently been said of the
East India trade might possibly be true of the French; that
though the greater part of East India goods were bought with gold
and silver, the re-exportation of a part of them to other
countries brought back more gold and silver to that which carried
on the trade than the prime cost of the whole amounted to. One of
the most important branches of the Dutch trade, at present,
consists in the carriage of French goods to other European
countries. Some part even of the French wine drank in Great
Britain is clandestinely imported from Holland and Zeeland. If
there was either a free trade between France and England, or if
French goods could be imported upon paying only the same duties
as those of other European nations, to be drawn back upon
exportation, England might have some share of a trade which is
found so advantageous to Holland.
     Thirdly, and lastly, there is no certain criterion by which
we can determine on which side what is called the balance between
any two countries lies, or which of them exports to the greatest
value. National prejudice and animosity, prompted always by the
private interest of particular traders, are the principles which
generally direct our judgment upon all questions concerning it.
There are two criterions, however, which have frequently been
appealed to upon such occasions, the customhouse books and the
course of exchange. The custom-house books, I think, it is now
generally acknowledged, are a very uncertain criterion, on
account of the inaccuracy of the valuation at which the greater
part of goods are rated in them. The course of exchange is,
perhaps, almost equally so.
     When the exchange between two places, such as London and
Paris, is at par, it is said to be a sign that the debts due from
London to Paris are compensated by those due from Paris to
London. On the contrary, when a premium is paid at London for a
bill upon Paris, it is said to be a sign that the debts due from
London to Paris are not compensated by those due from Paris to
London, but that a balance in money must be sent out from the
latter place; for the risk, trouble, and expense of exporting
which, the premium is both demanded and given. But the ordinary
state of debt and credit between those two cities must
necessarily be regulated, it is said, by the ordinary course of
their dealings with one another. When neither of them imports
from the other to a greater amount than it exports to that other,
the debts and credits of each may compensate one another. But
when one of them imports from the other to a greater value than
it exports to that other, the former necessarily becomes indebted
to the latter in a greater sum than the latter becomes indebted
to it; the debts and credits of each do not compensate one
another, and money must be sent out from that place of which the
debts overbalance the credits. The ordinary course of exchange,
therefore, being an indication of the ordinary state of debt and
credit between two places, must likewise be an indication of the
ordinary course of their exports and imports, as these
necessarily regulate that state.
     But though the ordinary course of exchange should be allowed
to be a sufficient indication of the ordinary state of debt and
credit between any two places, it would not from thence follow
that the balance of trade was in favour of that place which had
the ordinary state of debt and credit in its favour. The ordinary
state of debt and credit between any two places is not always
entirely regulated by the ordinary course of their dealings with
one another; but is often influenced by that of the dealings of
either with many other places. If it is usual, for example, for
the merchants of England to pay for the goods which they buy of
Hamburg, Danzig, Riga, etc., by bills upon Holland, the ordinary
state of debt and credit between England and Holland will not be
regulated entirely by the ordinary course of the dealings of
those two countries with one another, but will be influenced by
that of the dealings of England with those other places. England
may be obliged to send out every year money to Holland, though
its annual exports to that country may exceed very much the
annual value of its imports from thence; and though what is
called the balance of trade may be very much in favour of
England.
     In the way, besides, in which the par of exchange has
hitherto been computed, the ordinary course of exchange can
afford no sufficient indication that the ordinary state of debt
and credit is in favour of that country which seems to have, or
which is supposed to have, the ordinary course of exchange in its
favour: or, in other words, the real exchange may be, and, in
fact, often is so very different from the computed one, that from
the course of the latter no certain conclusion can, upon many
occasions, be drawn concerning that of the former.
     When for a sum of money paid in England, containing,
according to the standard of the English mint, a certain number
of ounces of pure silver, you receive a bill for a sum of money
to be paid in France, containing, according to the standard of
the French mint, an equal number of ounces of pure silver,
exchange is said to be at par between England and France. When
you pay more, you are supposed to give a premium, and exchange is
said to be against England and in favour of France. When you pay
less, you are supposed to get a premium, and exchange is said to
be against France and in favour of England.
     But, first, we cannot always judge of the value of the
current money of different countries by the standard of their
respective mints. In some it is more, in others it is less worn,
clipt, and otherwise degenerated from that standard. But the
value of the current coin of every country, compared with that of
any other country, is in proportion not to the quantity of pure
silver which it ought to contain, but to that which it actually
does contain. Before the reformation of the silver coin in King
William's time, exchange between England and Holland, computed in
the usual manner according to the standard of their respective
mints, was five-and-twenty per cent against England. But the
value of the current coin of England, as we learn from Mr.
Lowndes, was at that time rather more than five-and-twenty per
cent below its standard value. The real exchange, therefore, may
even at that time have been in favour of England, notwithstanding
the computed exchange was so much against it; a smaller number of
ounces of pure silver actually paid in England may have purchased
a bill for a greater number of ounces of pure silver to be paid
in Holland, and the man who was supposed to give may in reality
have got the premium. The French coin was, before the late
reformation of the English gold coin, much less worn than the
English, and was perhaps two or three per cent nearer its
standard. If the computed exchange with France, therefore, was
not more than two or three per cent against England, the real
exchange might have been in its favour. Since the reformation of
the gold coin, the exchange has been constantly in favour of
England, and against France.
     Secondly, in some countries, the expense of coinage is
defrayed by the government; in others, it is defrayed by the
private people who carry their bullion to the mint, and the
government even derives some revenue from the coinage. In
England, it is defrayed by the government, and if you carry a
pound weight of standard silver to the mint, you get back
sixty-two shillings, containing a pound weight of the like
standard silver. In France, a duty of eight per cent is deducted
for the coinage, which not only defrays the expense of it, but
affords a small revenue to the government. In England, as the
coinage costs nothing; the current coin can never be much more
valuable than the quantity of bullion which it actually contains.
In France, the workmanship, as you pay for it, adds to the value
in the same manner as to that of wrought plate. A sum of French
money, therefore, containing a certain weight of pure silver, is
more valuable than a sum of English money containing an equal
weight of pure silver, and must require more bullion, or other
commodities, to purchase it. Though the current coin of the two
countries, therefore, were equally near the standards of their
respective mints, a sum of English money could not well purchase
a sum of French money containing an equal number of ounces of
pure silver, nor consequently a bill upon France for such a sum.
If for such a bill no more additional money was paid than what
was sufficient to compensate the expense of the French coinage,
the real exchange might be at par between the two countries,
their debts and credits might mutually compensate one another,
while the computed exchange was considerably in favour of France.
If less than this was paid, the real exchange might be in favour
of England, while the computed was in favour of France.
     Thirdly, and lastly, in some places, as at Amsterdam,
Hamburg, Venice, etc., foreign bills of exchange are paid in what
they call bank money; while in others, as at London, Lisbon,
Antwerp, Leghorn, etc., they are paid in the common currency of
the country. What is called bank money is always of more value
than the same nominal sum of common currency. A thousand guilders
in the Bank of Amsterdam, for example, are of more value than a
thousand guilders of Amsterdam currency. The difference between
them is called the agio of the bank, which, at Amsterdam, is
generally about five per cent. Supposing the current money of the
two countries equally near to the standard of their respective
mints, and that the one pays foreign bills in this common
currency, while the other pays them in bank money, it is evident
that the computed exchange may be in favour of that which pays in
bank money, though the real exchange should be in favour of that
which pays in current money; for the same reason that the
computed exchange may be in favour of that which pays in better
money, or in money nearer to its own standard, though the real
exchange should be in favour of that which pays in worse. The
computed exchange, before the late reformation of the gold coin,
was generally against London with Amsterdam, Hamburg, Venice,
and, I believe, with all other places which pay in what is called
bank money. It will by no means follow, however, that the real
exchange was against it. Since the reformation of the gold coin,
it has been in favour of London even with those places. The
computed exchange has generally been in favour of London with
Lisbon, Antwerp, Leghorn, and, if you except France, I believe,
with most other parts of Europe that pay in common currency; and
it is not improbable that the real exchange was so too.   
DIGRESSION CONCERNING BANKS OF DEPOSIT, PARTICULARLY CONCERNING
                       THAT OF AMSTERDAM 
     The currency of a great state, such as France or England,
generally consists almost entirely of its own coin. Should this
currency, therefore, be at any time worn, clipt, or otherwise
degraded below its standard value, the state by a reformation of
its coin can effectually re-establish its currency. But the
currency of a small state, such as Genoa or Hamburg, can seldom
consist altogether in its own coin, but must be made up, in a
great measure, of the coins of all the neighbouring states with
which its inhabitants have a continual intercourse. Such a state,
therefore, by reforming its coin, will not always be able to
reform its currency. If foreign bills of exchange are paid in
this currency, the uncertain value of any sum, of what is in its
own nature so uncertain, must render the exchange always very
much against such a state, its currency being, in all foreign
states, necessarily valued even below what it is worth.
     In order to remedy the inconvenience to which this
disadvantageous exchange must have subjected their merchants,
such small states, when they began to attend to the interest of
trade, have frequently enacted, that foreign bills of exchange of
a certain value should be paid not in common currency, but by an
order upon, or by a transfer in the books of a certain bank,
established upon the credit, and under the protection of the
state; this bank being always obliged to pay, in good and true
money, exactly according to the standard of the state. The banks
of Venice, Genoa, Amsterdam, Hamburg, and Nuremberg, seem to have
been all originally established with this view, though some of
them may have afterwards been made subservient to other purposes.
The money of such banks being better than the common currency of
the country, necessarily bore an agio, which was greater or
smaller according as the currency was supposed to be more or less
degraded below the standard of the state. The agio of the Bank of
Hamburg, for example, which is said to be commonly about fourteen
per cent is the supposed difference between the good standard
money of the state, and the clipt, worn, and diminished currency
poured into it from all the neighbouring states.
     Before 1609 the great quantity of clipt and worn foreign
coin, which the extensive trade of Amsterdam brought from all
parts of Europe, reduced the value of its currency about nine per
cent below that of good money fresh from the mint. Such money no
sooner appeared than it was melted down or carried away, as it
always is in such circumstances. The merchants, with plenty of
currency, could not always find a sufficient quantity of good
money to pay their bills of exchange; and the value of those
bills, in spite of several regulations which were made to prevent
it, became in a great measure uncertain.
     In order to remedy these inconveniences, a bank was
established in 1609 under the guarantee of the city. This bank
received both foreign coin, and the light and worn coin of the
country at its real intrinsic value in the good standard money of
the country, deducting only so much as was necessary for
defraying the expense of coinage, and the other necessary expense
of management. For the value which remained, after this small
deduction was made, it gave a credit in its books. This credit
was called bank money, which, as it represented money exactly
according to the standard of the mint, was always of the same
real value, and intrinsically worth more than current money. It
was at the same time enacted, that all bills drawn upon or
negotiated at Amsterdam of the value of six hundred guilders and
upwards should be paid in bank money, which at once took away all
uncertainty in the value of those bills. Every merchant, in
consequence of this regulation, was obliged to keep an account
with the bank in order to pay his foreign bills of exchange,
which necessarily occasioned a certain demand for bank money.
     Bank money, over and above its intrinsic superiority to
currency, and the additional value which this demand necessarily
gives it, has likewise some other advantages. It is secure from
fire, robbery, and other accidents; the city of Amsterdam is
bound for it; it can be paid away by a simple transfer, without
the trouble of counting, or the risk of transporting it from one
place to another. In consequence of those different advantages,
it seems from the beginning to have borne agio, and it is
generally believed that all the money originally deposited in the
bank was allowed to remain there, nobody caring to demand payment
of a debt which he could sell for a premium in the market. By
demanding payment of the bank, the owner of a bank credit would
lose this premium. As a shilling fresh from the mint will buy no
more goods in the market than one of our common worn shillings,
so the good and true money which might be brought from the
coffers of the bank into those of a private person, being mixed
and confounded with the common currency of the country, would be
of no more value than that currency from which it could no longer
be readily distinguished. While it remained in the coffers of the
bank, its superiority was known and ascertained. When it had come
into those of a private person, its superiority could not well be
ascertained without more trouble than perhaps the difference was
worth. By being brought from the coffers of the bank, besides, it
lost all the other advantages of bank money; its security, its
easy and safe transferability, its use in paying foreign bills of
exchange. Over and above all this, it could not be brought from
those coffers, as it will appear by and by, without previously
paying for the keeping.
     Those deposits of coin, or those deposits which the bank was
bound to restore in coin, constituted the original capital of the
bank, or the whole value of what was represented by what is
called bank money. At present they are supposed to constitute but
a very small part of it. In order to facilitate the trade in
bullion, the bank has been for these many years in the practice
of giving credit in its books upon deposits of gold and silver
bullion. This credit is generally about five per cent below the
mint price of such bullion. The bank grants at the same time what
is called a recipe or receipt, entitling the person who makes the
deposit, or the bearer, to take out the bullion again at any time
within six months, upon re-transferring to the bank a quantity of
bank money equal to that for which credit had been given in its
books when the deposit was made, and upon paying one-fourth per
cent for the keeping, if the deposit was in silver; and one-half
per cent if it was in gold; but at the same time declaring that,
in default of such payment, and upon the expiration of this term,
the deposit should belong to the bank at the price at which it
had been received, or for which credit had been given in the
transfer books. What is thus paid for the keeping of the deposit
may be considered as a sort of warehouse rent; and why this
warehouse rent should be so much dearer for gold than for silver,
several different reasons have been assigned. The fineness of
gold, it has been said, is more difficult to be ascertained than
that of silver. Frauds are more easily practised, and occasion a
greater loss in the more precious metal. Silver, besides, being
the standard metal, the state, it has been said, wishes to
encourage more the making of deposits of silver than those of
gold.
     Deposits of bullion are most commonly made when the price is
somewhat lower than ordinary; and they are taken out again when
it happens to rise. In Holland the market price of bullion is
generally above the mint price, for the same reason that it was
so in England before the late reformation of the gold coin. The
difference is said to be commonly from about six to sixteen
stivers upon the mark, or eight ounces of silver of eleven parts
fine and one part alloy. The bank price, or the credit which the
bank gives for deposits of such silver (when made in foreign
coin, of which the fineness is well known and ascertained, such
as Mexico dollars), is twenty-two guilders the mark; the mint
price is about twenty-three guilders, and the market price is
from twenty-three guilders six to twenty-three guilders sixteen
stivers, or from two to three per cent above the mint price.* The
proportions between the bank price, the mint price, and the
market price of gold bullion are nearly the same. A person can
generally sell his receipt for the difference between the mint
price of bullion and the market price. A receipt for bullion is
almost always worth something, and it very seldom happens,
therefore, that anybody suffers his receipt to expire, or allows
his bullion to fall to the bank at the price at which it had been
received, either by not taking it out before the end of the six
months, or by neglecting to pay the one-fourth or one-half per
cent in order to obtain a new receipt for another six months.
This, however, though it happens seldom, is said to happen
sometimes, and more frequently with regard to gold than with
regard to silver, on account of the higher warehouse-rent which
is paid for the keeping of the more precious metal.    * The
following are the prices at which the Bank of Amsterdam at
present (September, 1775) receives bullion and coin of different
kind:- 
               SILVER 
     Mexico dollars           Guilders B-22 per mark
     French crowns            Guilders B-22 per mark
     English silver coin      Guilders B-22 per mark
     Mexico dollars new coin             21 10
     Ducatoons                            3
     Rix dollars                          2 8 
     Bar silver containing eleven-twelfths fine silver 21 per
mark, and in this proportion down to 1/4 fine, on which 5
guilders are given.
     Fine bars, 93 per mark. 
               GOLD 
     Portugal coin            B-310 per mark
     Guineas                  B-310 per mark
     Louis d'ors new          B-310 per mark
     Ditto old                  300
     New ducats                 4 19 8 per ducat 
     Bar or ingot gold is received in proportion to its fineness
compared with the above foreign gold coin. Upon fine bars the
bank gives 340 per mark. In general, however, something more is
given upon coin of a known fineness, than upon gold and silver
bars, of which the fineness cannot be ascertained but by a
process of melting and assaying. 
     The person who by making a deposit of bullion obtains both a
bank credit and receipt, pays his bills of exchange as they
become due with his bank credit; and either sells or keeps his
receipt according as he judges that the price of bullion is
likely to rise or to fall. The receipt and the bank credit seldom
keep long together, and there is no occasion that they should.
The person who has a receipt, and who wants to take out bullion,
finds always plenty of bank credits, or bank money to buy at the
ordinary price; and the person who has bank money, and wants to
take out bullion, finds receipts always in equal abundance.
     The owners of bank credits, and the holders of receipts,
constitute two different sorts of creditors against the bank. The
holder of a receipt cannot draw out the bullion for which it is
granted, without reassigning to the bank a sum of bank money
equal to the price at which the bullion had been received. If he
has no bank money of his own, he must purchase it of those who
have it. The owner of bank money cannot draw out bullion without
producing to the bank receipts for the quantity which he wants.
If he has none of his own, he must buy them of those who have
them. The holder of a receipt, when he purchases bank money,
purchases the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which
the mint price is five per cent above the bank price. The agio of
five per cent therefore, which he commonly pays for it, is paid
not for an imaginary but for a real value. The owner of bank
money, when he purchases a receipt, purchases the power of taking
out a quantity of bullion of which the market price is commonly
from two to three per cent above the mint price. The price which
he pays for it, therefore, is paid likewise for a real value. The
price of the receipt, and the price of the bank money, compound
or make up between them the full value or price of the bullion.
     Upon deposits of the coin current in the country, the bank
grants receipts likewise as well as bank credits; but those
receipts are frequently of no value, and will bring no price in
the market. Upon ducatoons, for example, which in the currency
pass for three guilders three stivers each, the bank gives a
credit of three guilders only, or five per cent below their
current value. It grants a receipt likewise entitling the bearer
to take out the number of ducatoons deposited at any time within
six months, upon paying one-fourth per cent for the keeping. This
receipt will frequently bring no price in the market. Three
guilders bank money generally sell in the market for three
guilders three stivers, the full value of the ducatoons, if they
were taken out of the bank; and before they can be taken out,
one-fourth per cent must be paid for the keeping, which would be
mere loss to the holder of the receipt. If the agio of the bank,
however, should at any time fall to three per cent such receipts
might bring some price in the market, and might sell for one and
three-fourths per cent. But the agio of the bank being now
generally about five per cent such receipts are frequently
allowed to expire, or as they express it, to fall to the bank.
The receipts which are given for deposits of gold ducats fall to
it yet more frequently, because a higher warehouse-rent, or
one-half per cent must be paid for the keeping of them before
they can be taken out again. The five per cent which the bank
gains, when deposits either of coin or bullion are allowed to
fall to it, may be considered as the warehouse-rent for the
perpetual keeping of such deposits.
     The sum of bank money for which the receipts are expired
must be very considerable. It must comprehend the whole original
capital of the bank, which, it is generally supposed, has been
allowed to remain there from the time it was first deposited,
nobody caring either to renew his receipt or to take out his
deposit, as, for the reasons already assigned, neither the one
nor the other could be done without loss. But whatever may be the
amount of this sum, the proportion which it bears to the whole
mass of bank money is supposed to be very small. The Bank of
Amsterdam has for these many years past been the great warehouse
of Europe for bullion, for which the receipts are very seldom
allowed to expire, or, as they express it, to fall to the bank.
far greater part of the bank money, or of the credits upon the
books of the bank, is supposed to have been created, for these
many years past, by such deposits which the dealers in bullion
are continually both making and withdrawing.
     No demand can be made upon the bank but by means of a recipe
or receipt. The smaller mass of bank money, for which the
receipts are expired, is mixed and confounded with the much
greater mass for which they are still in force; so that, though
there may be a considerable sum of bank money for which there are
no receipts, there is no specific sum or portion of it which may
not at any time be demanded by one. The bank cannot be debtor to
two persons for the same thing; and the owner of bank money who
has no receipt cannot demand payment of the bank till he buys
one. In ordinary and quiet times, he can find no difficulty in
getting one to buy at the market price, which generally
corresponds with the price at which he can sell the coin or
bullion it entities him to take out of the bank.
     It might be otherwise during a public calamity; an invasion,
for example, such as that of the French in 1672. The owners of
bank money being then all eager to draw it out of the bank, in
order to have it their own keeping, the demand for receipts might
raise their price to an exorbitant height. The holders of them
might form expectations, and, instead of two or three per cent,
demand half the bank money for which credit had been given upon
the deposits that the receipts had respectively been granted for.
The enemy, informed of the constitution of the bank, might even
buy them up, in order to prevent the carrying away of the
treasure. In such emergencies, the bank, it is supposed, would
break through its ordinary rule of making payment only to the
holders of receipts. The holders of receipts, who had no bank
money, must have received within two or three per cent of the
value of the deposit for which their respective receipts had been
granted. The bank, therefore, it is said, would in this case make
no scruple of paying, either with money or bullion, the full
value of what the owners of bank money who could get no receipts
were credited for in its books; paying at the same time two or
three per cent to such holders of receipts as had no bank money,
that being the whole value which in this state of things could
justly be supposed due to them.
     Even in ordinary and quiet times it is the interest of the
holders of receipts to depress the agio, in order either to buy
bank money (and consequently the bullion, which their receipts
would then enable them to take out of the bank) so much cheaper,
or to sell their receipts to those who have bank money, and who
want to take out bullion, so much dearer; the price of a receipt
being generally equal to the difference between the market price
of bank money, and that of the coin or bullion for which the
receipt had been granted. It is the interest of the owners of
bank money, on the contrary, to raise the agio, in order either
to sell their bank money so much dearer, or to buy a receipt so
much cheaper. To prevent the stock-jobbing tricks which those
opposite interests might sometimes occasion, the bank has of late
years come to the resolution to sell at all times bank money for
currency, at five per cent agio, and to buy it in again at four
per cent agio. In consequence of this resolution, the agio can
never either rise above five or sink below four per cent, and the
proportion between the market price of bank and that of current
money is kept at all times very near to the proportion between
their intrinsic values. Before this resolution was taken, the
market price of bank money used sometimes to rise so high as nine
per cent agio, and sometimes to sink so low as par, according as
opposite interests happened to influence the market.
     The Bank of Amsterdam professes to lend out no part of what
is deposited with it, but, for every guilder for which it gives
credit in its books, to keep in its repositories the value of a
guilder either in money or bullion. That it keeps in its
repositories all the money or bullion for which there are
receipts in force, for which it is at all times liable to be
called upon, and which, in reality, is continually going from it
and returning to it again, cannot well be doubted. But whether it
does so likewise with regard to that part of its capital, for
which the receipts are long ago expired, for which in ordinary
and quiet times it cannot be called upon, and which in reality is
very likely to remain with it for ever, or as long as the States
of the United Provinces subsist, may perhaps appear more
uncertain. At Amsterdam, however, no point of faith is better
established than that for every guilder, circulated as bank
money, there is a correspondent guilder in gold or silver to be
found in the treasure of the bank. The city is guarantee that it
should be so. The bank is under the direction of the four
reigning burgomasters who are changed every year. Each new set of
burgomasters visits the treasure, compares it with the books,
receives it upon oath, and delivers it over, with the same awful
solemnity, to the set which succeeds; and in that sober and
religious country oaths are not yet disregarded. A rotation of
this kind seems alone a sufficient security against any practices
which cannot be avowed. Amidst all the revolutions which faction
has ever occasioned in the government of Amsterdam, the
prevailing party has at no time accused their predecessors of
infidelity in the administration of the bank. No accusation could
have affected more deeply the reputation and fortune of the
disgraced party, and if such an accusation could have been
supported, we may be assured that it would have been brought. In
1672, when the French king was at Utrecht, the Bank of Amsterdam
paid so readily as left no doubt of the fidelity with which it
had observed its engagements. Some of the pieces which were then
brought from its repositories appeared to have been scorched with
the fire which happened in the town-house soon after the bank was
established. Those pieces, therefore, must have lain there from
that time.
     What may be the amount of the treasure in the bank is a
question which has long employed speculations of the curious.
Nothing but conjecture can be offered concerning it. It is
generally reckoned that there are about two thousand people who
keep accounts with the bank, and allowing them to have, one with
another, the value of fifteen hundred pounds sterling lying upon
their respective accounts (a very large allowance), the whole
quantity of bank money, and consequently of treasure in the bank,
will amount to about three millions sterling, or, at eleven
guilders the pound sterling, thirty-three millions of guilders- a
great sum, and sufficient to carry on a very extensive
circulation, but vastly below the extravagant ideas which some
people have formed of this treasure.
     The city of Amsterdam derives a considerable revenue from
the bank. Besides what may be called the warehouse-rent above
mentioned, each person, upon first opening an account with the
bank, pays a fee of ten guilders; and for every new account three
guilders three stivers; for every transfer two stivers; and if
the transfer is for less than three hundred guilders, six
stivers, in order to discourage the multiplicity of small
transactions. The person who neglects to balance his account
twice in the year forfeits twenty-five guilders. The person who
orders a transfer for more than is upon his account, is obliged
to pay three per cent for the sum overdrawn, and his order is set
aside into the bargain. The bank is supposed, too, to make a
considerable profit by the sale of the foreign coin or bullion
which sometimes falls to it by the expiring of receipts, and
which is always kept till it can be sold with advantage. It makes
a profit likewise by selling bank money at five per cent agio,
and buying it in at four. These different emoluments amount to a
good deal more than what is necessary for paying the salaries of
officers, and defraying the expense of management. What is paid
for the keeping of bullion upon receipts is alone supposed to
amount to a neat annual revenue of between one hundred and fifty
thousand and two hundred thousand guilders. Public utility,
however, and not revenue, was the original object of this
institution. Its object was to relieve the merchants from the
inconvenience of a disadvantageous exchange. The revenue which
has arisen from it was unforeseen, and may be considered as
accidental. But it is now time to return from this long
digression, into which I have been insensibly led in endeavouring
to explain the reasons why the exchange between the countries
which pay in what is called bank money, and those which pay in
common currency, should generally appear to be in favour of the
former and against the latter. The former pay in a species of
money of which the intrinsic value is always the same, and
exactly agreeable to the standard of their respective mints; the
latter is a species of money of which the intrinsic value is
continually varying, and is almost always more or less below that
standard.
                               PART 2
       Of the Unreasonableness of those extraordinary Restraints
                         upon other Principles 
     IN the foregoing part of this chapter I have endeavoured to
show, even upon the principles of the commercial system, how
unnecessary it is to lay extraordinary restraints upon the
importation of goods from those countries with which the balance
of trade is supposed to be disadvantageous.
     Nothing, however, can be more absurd than this whole
doctrine of the balance of trade, upon which, not only these
restraints, but almost all the other regulations of commerce are
founded. When two places trade with one another, this doctrine
supposes that, if the balance be even, neither of them either
loses or gains; but if it leans in any degree to one side, that
one of them loses and the other gains in proportion to its
declension from the exact equilibrium. Both suppositions are
false. A trade which is forced by means of bounties and
monopolies may be and commonly is disadvantageous to the country
in whose favour it is meant to be established, as I shall
endeavour to show hereafter. But that trade which, without force
or constraint, is naturally and regularly carried on between any
two places is always advantageous, though not always equally so,
to both.
     By advantage or gain, I understand not the increase of the
quantity of gold and silver, but that of the exchangeable value
of the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, or
the increase of the annual revenue of its inhabitants.
     If the balance be even, and if the trade between the two
places consist altogether in the exchange of their native
commodities, they will, upon most occasions, not only both gain,
but they will gain equally, or very near equally; each will in
this case afford a market for a part of the surplus produce of
the other; each will replace a capital which had been employed in
raising and preparing for the market this part of the surplus
produce of the other, and which had been distributed among, and
given revenue and maintenance to a certain number of its
inhabitants. Some part of the inhabitants of each, therefore,
will indirectly derive their revenue and maintenance from the
other. As the commodities exchanged, too, are supposed to be of
equal value, so the two capitals employed in the trade will, upon
most occasions, be equal, or very nearly equal; and both being
employed in raising the native commodities of the two countries,
the revenue and maintenance which their distribution will afford
to the inhabitants of each will be equal, or very nearly equal.
This revenue and maintenance, thus mutually afforded, will be
greater or smaller in proportion to the extent of their dealings.
If these should annually amount to an hundred thousand pounds,
for example, or to a million on each side, each of them would
afford an annual revenue in the one case of an hundred thousand
pounds, in the other of a million, to the inhabitants of the
other.
     If their trade should be of such a nature that one of them
exported to the other nothing but native commodities, while the
returns of that other consisted altogether in foreign goods; the
balance, in this case, would still be supposed even, commodities
being paid for with commodities. They would, in this case too,
both gain, but they would not gain equally; and the inhabitants
of the country which exported nothing but native commodities
would derive the greatest revenue from the trade. If England, for
example, should import from France nothing but the native
commodities of that country, and, not having such commodities of
its own as were in demand there, should annually repay them by
sending thither a large quantity of foreign goods, tobacco, we
shall suppose, and East India goods; this trade, though it would
give some revenue to the inhabitants of both countries, would
give more to those of France than to those of England. The whole
French capital annually employed in it would annually be
distributed among the people of France. But that part of the
English capital only which was employed in producing the English
commodities with which those foreign goods were purchased would
be annually distributed among the people of England. The greater
part of it would replace the capitals which had been employed in
Virginia, Indostan, and China, and which had given revenue and
maintenance to the of those distant countries. If the capitals
were equal, or nearly equal, therefore this employment of the
French capital would augment much more the revenue of the people
of France than that of the English capital would the revenue of
the people of England. France would in this case carry on a
direct foreign trade of consumption with England; whereas England
would carry on a round-about trade of the same kind with France.
The different effects of a capital employed in the direct and of
one employed in the round-about foreign trade of consumption have
already been fully explained.
     There is not, probably, between any two countries a trade
which consists altogether in the exchange either of native
commodities on both sides, or of native commodities on one side
and of foreign goods on the other. Almost all countries exchange
with one another partly native and partly foreign goods. That
country, however, in whose cargoes there is the greatest
proportion of native, and the least of foreign goods, will always
be the principal gainer.
     If it was not with tobacco and East India goods, but with
gold and silver, that England paid for the commodities annually
imported from France, the balance, in this case, would be
supposed uneven, commodities not being paid for with commodities,
but with gold and silver. The trade, however, would, in this
case, as in the foregoing, give some revenue to the inhabitants
of both countries, but more to those of France than to those of
England. It would give some revenue to those of England. The
capital which had been employed in producing the English goods
that purchased this gold and silver, the capital which had been
distributed among, and given revenue to, certain inhabitants of
England, would thereby be replaced and enabled to continue that
employment. The whole capital of England would no more be
diminished by this exportation of gold and silver than by the
exportation of an equal value of any other goods. On the
contrary, it would in most cases be augmented. No goods are sent
abroad but those for which the demand is supposed to be greater
abroad than at home, and of which the returns consequently, it is
expected, will be of more value at home than the commodities
exported. If the tobacco which, in England, is worth only a
hundred thousand pounds, when sent to France will purchase wine
which is, in England, worth a hundred and ten thousand, this
exchange will equally augment the capital of England by ten
thousand pounds. If a hundred thousand pounds of English gold, in
the same manner, purchase French wine which, in England, is worth
a hundred and ten thousand, this exchange will equally augment
the capital of England by ten thousand pounds. As a merchant who
has a hundred and ten thousand pounds worth of wine in his cellar
is a richer man than he who has only a hundred thousand pounds
worth of tobacco in his warehouse, so is he likewise a richer man
than he who has only a hundred thousand pounds worth of gold in
his coffers. He can put into motion a greater quantity of
industry, and give revenue, maintenance, and employment to a
greater number of people than either of the other two. But the
capital of the country is equal to the capitals of all its
different inhabitants, and the quantity of industry which can be
annually maintained in it is equal to what all those different
capitals can maintain. Both the capital of the country,
therefore, and the quantity of industry which can be annually
maintained in it, must generally be augmented by this exchange.
It would, indeed, be more advantageous for England that it could
purchase the wines of France with its own hardware and broadcloth
than with either the tobacco of Virginia or the gold and silver
of Brazil and Peru. A direct foreign trade of consumption is
always more advantageous than a roundabout one. But a round-about
foreign trade of consumption, which is carried on with gold and
silver, does not seem to be less advantageous than any other
equally round-about one. Neither is a country which has no mines
more likely to be exhausted of gold and silver by this annual
exportation of those metals than one which does not grow tobacco
by the like annual exportation of that plant. As a country which
has wherewithal to buy tobacco will never be long in want of it,
so neither will one be long in want of gold and silver which has
wherewithal to purchase those metals.
     It is a losing trade, it is said, which a workman carries on
with the alehouse; and the trade which a manufacturing nation
would naturally carry on with a wine country may be considered as
a trade of the same nature. I answer, that the trade with the
alehouse is not necessarily a losing trade. In its own nature it
is just as advantageous as any other, though perhaps somewhat
more liable to be abused. The employment of a brewer, and even
that of a retailer of fermented liquors, are as necessary
divisions of labour as any other. It will generally be more
advantageous for a workman to buy of the brewer the quantity he
has occasion for than to brew it himself, and if he is a poor
workman, it will generally be more advantageous for him to buy it
by little and little of the retailer than a large quantity of the
brewer. He may no doubt buy too much of either, as he may of any
other dealers in his neighbourhood, of the butcher, if he is a
glutton, or of the draper, if he affects to be a beau among his
companions. It is advantageous to the great body of workmen,
notwithstanding, that all these trades should be free, though
this freedom may be abused in all of them, and is more likely to
be so, perhaps, in some than in others. Though individuals,
besides, may sometimes ruin their fortunes by an excessive
consumption of fermented liquors, there seems to be no risk that
a nation should do so. Though in every country there are many
people who spend upon such liquors more than they can afford,
there are always many more who spend less. It deserves to be
remarked too, that, if we consult experience, the cheapness of
wine seems to be a cause, not of drunkenness, but of sobriety.
The inhabitants of the wine countries are in general the soberest
people in Europe; witness the Spainards, the Italians, and the
inhabitants of the southern provinces of France. People are
seldom guilty of excess in what is their daily fare. Nobody
affects the character of liberality and good fellowship by being
profuse of a liquor which is as cheap as small beer. On the
contrary, in the countries which, either from excessive heat or
cold, produce no grapes, and where wine consequently is dear and
a rarity, drunkenness is a common vice, as among the northern
nations, and all those who live between the tropics, the negroes,
for example, on the coast of Guinea. When a French regiment comes
from some of the northern provinces of France, where wine is
somewhat dear, to be quartered in the southern, where it is very
cheap, the soldiers, I have frequently heard it observed are at
first debauched by the cheapness and novelty of good wine; but
after a few months' residence, the greater part of them become as
sober as the rest of the inhabitants. Were the duties upon
foreign wines, and the excises upon malt, beer, and ale to be
taken away all at once, it might, in the same manner, occasion in
Great Britain a pretty general and temporary drunkenness among
the middling and inferior ranks of people, which would probably
be soon followed by a permanent and almost universal sobriety. At
present drunkenness is by no means the vice of people of fashion,
or of those who can easily afford the most expensive liquors. A
gentleman drunk with ale has scarce ever been seen among us. The
restraints upon the wine trade in Great Britain, besides, do not
so much seem calculated to hinder the people from going, if I may
say so, to the alehouse, as from going where they can buy the
best and cheapest liquor. They favour the wine trade of Portugal,
and discourage that of France. The Portugese, it is said, indeed,
are better customers for our manufactures than the French, and
should therefore be encouraged in preference to them. As they
give us their custom, it is pretended, we should give them ours.
The sneaking arts of underling tradesmen are thus erected into
political maxims for the conduct of a great empire: for it is the
most underling tradesmen only who make it a rule to employ
chiefly their own customers. A great trader purchases his goods
always where they are cheapest and best, without regard to any
little interest of this kind.
     By such maxims as these, however, nations have been taught
that their interest consisted in beggaring all their neighbours.
Each nation has been made to look with an invidious eye upon the
prosperity of all the nations with which it trades, and to
consider their gain as its own loss. Commerce, which ought
naturally to be, among nations, as among individuals, a bond of
union and friendship, has become the most fertile source of
discord and animosity. The capricious ambition of kings and
ministers has not, during the present and the preceding century,
been more fatal to the repose of Europe than the impertinent
jealousy of merchants and manufacturers. The violence and
injustice of the rulers of mankind is an ancient evil, for which,
I am afraid, the nature of human affairs can scarce admit of a
remedy. But the mean rapacity, the monopolizing spirit of
merchants and manufacturers, who neither are, nor ought to be,
the rulers of mankind, though it cannot perhaps be corrected may
very easily be prevented from disturbing the tranquillity of
anybody but themselves.
     That it was the spirit of monopoly which originally both
invented and propagated this doctrine cannot be doubted; and they
who first taught it were by no means such fools as they who
believed it. In every country it always is and must be the
interest of the great body of the people to buy whatever they
want of those who sell it cheapest. The proposition is so very
manifest that it seems ridiculous to take any pains to prove it;
nor could it ever have been called in question had not the
interested sophistry of merchants and manufacturers confounded
the common sense of mankind. Their interest is, in this respect,
directly opposite to that of the great body of the people. As it
is the interest of the freemen of a corporation to hinder the
rest of the inhabitants from employing any workmen but
themselves, so it is the interest of the merchants and
manufacturers of every country to secure to themselves the
monopoly of the home market. Hence in Great Britain, and in most
other European countries, the extraordinary duties upon almost
all goods imported by alien merchants. Hence the high duties and
prohibitions upon all those foreign manufactures which can come
into competition with our own. Hence, too, the extraordinary
restraints upon the importation of almost all sorts of goods from
those countries with which the balance of trade is supposed to be
disadvantageous; that is, from those against whom national
animosity happens to be most violently inflamed.
     The wealth of a neighbouring nation, however, though
dangerous in war and politics, is certainly advantageous in
trade. In a state of hostility it may enable our enemies to
maintain fleets and armies superior to our own; but in a state of
peace and commerce it must likewise enable them to exchange with
us to a greater value, and to afford a better market, either for
the immediate produce of our own industry, or for whatever is
purchased with that produce. As a rich man is likely to be a
better customer to the industrious people in his neighbourhood
than a poor, so is likewise a rich nation. A rich man, indeed,
who is himself a manufacturer, is a very dangerous neighbour to
all those who deal in the same way. All the rest of the
neighbourhood, however, by far the greatest number, profit by the
good market which his expense affords them. They even profit by
his underselling the poorer workmen who deal in the same way with
him. The manufacturers of a rich nation, in the same manner, may
no doubt be very dangerous rivals to those of their neighbours.
This very competition, however, is advantageous to the great body
of the people, who profit greatly besides by the good market
which the great expense of such a nation affords them in every
other way. Private people who want to make a fortune never think
of retiring to the remote and poor provinces of the country, but
resort either to the capital, or to some of the great commercial
towns. They know that where little wealth circulates there is
little to be got, but that where a great deal is in motion, some
share of it may fall to them. The same maxims which would in this
manner direct the common sense of one, or ten, or twenty
individuals, should regulate the judgment of one, or ten, or
twenty millions, and should make a whole nation regard the riches
of its neighbours as a probable cause and occasion for itself to
acquire riches. A nation that would enrich itself by foreign
trade is certainly most likely to do so when its neighbours are
all rich, industrious, and commercial nations. A great nation
surrounded on all sides by wandering savages and poor barbarians
might, no doubt, acquire riches by the cultivation of its own
lands, and by its own interior commerce, but not by foreign
trade. It seems to have been in this manner that the ancient
Egyptians and the modern Chinese acquired their great wealth. The
ancient Egyptians, it is said, neglected foreign commerce, and
the modern Chinese, it is known, bold it in the utmost contempt,
and scarce deign to afford it the decent protection of the laws.
The modern maxims of foreign commerce, by aiming at the
impoverishment of all our neighbours, so far as they are capable
of producing their intended effect, tend to render that very
commerce insignificant and contemptible.
     It is in consequence of these maxims that the commerce
between France and England has in both countries been subjected
to so many discouragements and restraints. If those two
countries, however, were to consider their real interest, without
either mercantile jealousy or national animosity, the commerce of
France might be more advantageous to Great Britain than that of
any other country, and for the same reason that of Great Britain
to France. France is the nearest neighbour to Great Britain. In
the trade between the southern coast of England and the northern
and north-western coasts of France, the returns might be
expected, in the same manner as in the inland trade, four, five,
or six times in the year. The capital, therefore, employed in
this trade could in each of the two countries keep in motion
four, five, or six times the quantity of industry, and afford
employment and subsistence to four, five, or six times the number
of people, which an equal capital could do in the greater part of
the other branches of foreign trade. Between the parts of France
and Great Britain most remote from one another, the returns might
be expected, at least, once in the year, and even this trade
would so far be at least equally advantageous as the greater part
of the other branches of our foreign European trade. It would be,
at least, three times more advantageous than the boasted trade
with our North American colonies, in which the returns were
seldom made in less than three years, frequently not in less than
four or five years. France, besides, is supposed to contain
twenty-four millions of inhabitants. Our North American colonies
were never supposed to contain more than three millions; and
France is a much richer country than North America; though, on
account of the more unequal distribution of riches, there is much
more poverty and beggary in the one country than in the other.
France, therefore, could afford a market at least eight times
more extensive, and, on account of the superior frequency of the
returns, four-and-twenty times more advantageous than that which
our North American colonies ever afforded. The trade of Great
Britain would be just as advantageous to France, and, in
proportion to the wealth, population, and proximity of the
respective countries, would have the same superiority over that
which France carries on with her own colonies. Such is the very
great difference between that trade, which the wisdom of both
nations has thought proper to discourage, and that which it has
favoured the most.
     But the very same circumstances which would have rendered an
open and free commerce between the two countries so advantageous
to both, have occasioned the principal obstructions to that
commerce. Being neighbours, they are necessarily enemies, and the
wealth and power of each becomes, upon that account, more
formidable to the other; and what would increase the advantage of
national friendship serves only to inflame the violence of
national animosity. They are both rich and industrious nations;
and the merchants and manufacturers of each dread the competition
of the skill and activity of those of the other. Mercantile
jealousy is excited, and both inflames, and is itself inflamed,
by the violence of national animosity; and the traders of both
countries have announced, with all the passionate confidence of
interested falsehood, the certain ruin of each, in consequence of
that unfavourable balance of trade, which, they pretend, would be
the infallible effect of an unrestrained commerce with the other.
     There is no commercial country in Europe of which the
approaching ruin has not frequently been foretold by the
pretended doctors of this system from an unfavourable balance of
trade. After all the anxiety, however, which they have excited
about this, after all the vain attempts of almost all trading
nations to turn that balance in their own favour and against
their neighbours, it does not appear that any one nation in
Europe has been in any respect impoverished by this cause. Every
town and country, on the contrary, in proportion as they have
opened their ports to all nations, instead of being ruined by
this free trade, as the principles of the commercial system would
lead us to expect, have been enriched by it. Though there are in
Europe, indeed, a few towns which in some respects deserve the
name of free ports, there is no country which does so. Holland,
perhaps, approaches the nearest to this character of any though
still very remote from it; and Holland, it is acknowledged, not
only derives its whole wealth, but a great part of its necessary
subsistence, from foreign trade.
     There is another balance, indeed, which has already been
explained, very different from the balance of trade, and which,
according as it happens to be either favourable or unfavourable,
necessarily occasions the prosperity or decay of every nation.
This is the balance of the annual produce and consumption. If the
exchangeable value of the annual produce, it has already been
observed, exceeds that of the annual consumption, the capital of
the society must annually increase in proportion to this excess.
The society in this case lives within its revenue, and what is
annually saved out of its revenue is naturally added to its
capital, and employed so as to increase still further the annual
produce. If the exchangeable value of the annual produce, on the
contrary, fail short of the annual consumption, the capital of
the society must annually decay in proportion to this deficiency.
The expense of the society in this case exceeds its revenue, and
necessarily encroaches upon its capital. Its capital, therefore,
must necessarily decay, and together with it the exchangeable
value of the annual produce of its industry.
     This balance of produce and consumption is entirely
different from what is called the balance of trade. It might take
place in a nation which had no foreign trade, but which was
entirely separated from all the world. It may take place in the
whole globe of the earth, of which the wealth, population, and
improvement may be either gradually increasing or gradually
decaying.
     The balance of produce and consumption may be constantly in
favour of a nation, though what is called the balance of trade be
generally against it. A nation may import to a greater value than
it exports for half a century, perhaps, together; the gold and
silver which comes into it during an this time may be all
immediately sent out of it; its circulating coin may gradually
decay, different sorts of paper money being substituted in its
place, and even the debts, too, which it contracts in the
principal nations with whom it deals, may be gradually
increasing; and yet its real wealth, the exchangeable value of
the annual produce of its lands and labour, may, during the same
period, have been increasing in a much greater proportion. The
state of our North American colonies, and of the trade which they
carried on with Great Britain, before the commencement of the
present disturbances, may serve as a proof that this is by no
means an impossible supposition.

                          CHAPTER IV

                         Of Drawbacks 

     MERCHANTS and manufacturers are not contented with the
monopoly of the home market, but desire likewise the most
extensive foreign sale for their goods. Their country has no
jurisdiction in foreign nations, and therefore can seldom procure
them any monopoly there. They are generally obliged, therefore,
to content themselves with petitioning for certain encouragements
to exportation.
     Of these encouragements what are called Drawbacks seem to be
the most reasonable. To allow the merchant to draw back upon
exportation, either the whole or a part of whatever excise or
inland duty is imposed upon domestic industry, can never occasion
the exportation of a greater quantity of goods than what would
have been exported had no duty been imposed. Such encouragements
do not tend to turn towards any particular employment a greater
share of the capital of the country than what would go to that
employment of its own accord, but only to hinder the duty from
driving away any part of that share to other employments. They
tend not to overturn that balance which naturally establishes
itself among all the various employments of the society; but to
hinder it from being overturned by the duty. They tend not to
destroy, but to preserve what it is in most cases advantageous to
preserve, the natural division and distribution of labour in the
society.
     The same thing may be said of the drawbacks upon the
re-exportation of foreign goods imported, which in Great Britain
generally amount to by much the largest part of the duty upon
importation. By the second of the rules annexed to the Act of
Parliament which imposed what is now called the Old Subsidy,
every merchant, whether English or alien, was allowed to draw
back half that duty upon exportation; the English merchant,
provided the exportation took place within twelve months; the
alien, provided it took place within nine months. Wines,
currants, and wrought silks were the only goods which did not
fall within this rule, having other and more advantageous
allowances. The duties imposed by this Act of Parliament were at
that time the only duties upon the importation of foreign goods.
The term within which this and all other drawbacks could be
claimed was afterwards (by the 7th George I, c. 21, sect. 10)
extended to three years.
     The duties which have been imposed since the Old Subsidy
are, the greater part of them, wholly drawn back upon
exportation. This general rule, however, is liable to a great
number of exceptions, and the doctrine of drawbacks has become a
much less simple matter than it was at their first institution.
     Upon the exportation of some foreign goods, of which it was
expected that the importation would greatly exceed what was
necessary for the home consumption, the whole duties are drawn
back, without retaining even half the Old Subsidy. Before the
revolt of our North American colonies, we had the monopoly of the
tobacco of Maryland and Virginia. We imported about ninety-six
thousand hogsheads, and the home consumption was not supposed to
exceed fourteen thousand. To facilitate the great exportation
which was necessary, in order to rid us of the rest, the whole
duties were drawn back, provided the exportation took place
within three years.
     We still have, though not altogether, yet very nearly, the
monopoly of the sugars of our West Indian Islands. If sugars are
exported within a year, therefore, all the duties upon
importation are drawn back, and if exported within three years
all the duties, except half the Old Subsidy, which still
continues to be retained upon the exportation of the greater part
of goods. Though the importation of sugar exceeds, a good deal,
what is necessary for the home consumption, the excess is
inconsiderable in comparison of what it used to be in tobacco.
     Some goods, the particular objects of the jealousy of our
own manufacturers, are prohibited to be imported for home
consumption. They may, however, upon paying certain duties, be
imported and warehoused for exportation. But upon such
exportation, no part of these duties are drawn back. Our
manufacturers are unwilling, it seems, that even this restricted
importation should be encouraged, and are afraid lest some part
of these goods should be stolen out of the warehouse, and thus
come into competition with their own. It is under these
regulations only that we can import wrought silks, French
cambrics and lawns, calicoes painted, printed, stained or dyed,
etc.
     We are unwilling even to be the carriers of French goods,
and choose rather to forego a profit to ourselves than to suffer
those, whom we consider as our enemies, to make any profit by our
means. Not only half the Old Subsidy, but the second twenty-five
per cent, is retained upon the exportation of all French goods.
     By the fourth of the rules annexed to the Old Subsidy, the
drawback allowed upon the exportation of all wines amounted to a
great deal more than half the duties which were, at that time,
paid upon their importation; and it seems, at that time, to have
been the object of the legislature to give somewhat more than
ordinary encouragement to the carrying trade in wine. Several of
the other duties too, which were imposed either at the same time,
or subsequent to the Old Subsidy- what is called the additional
duty, the New Subsidy, the One-third and Two-thirds Subsidies,
the impost 1692, the coinage on wine- were allowed to be wholly
drawn back upon exportation. All those duties, however, except
the additional duty and impost 1692, being paid down in ready
money, upon importation, the interest of so large a sum
occasioned an expense, which made it unreasonable to expect any
profitable carrying trade in this article. Only a part,
therefore, of the duty called the impost on wine, and no part of
the twenty-five pounds the ton upon French wines, or of the
duties imposed in 1745, in 1763, and in 1778, were allowed to be
drawn back upon exportation. The two imposts of five per cent,
imposed in 1779 and 1781, upon all the former duties of customs,
being allowed to be wholly drawn back upon the exportation of all
other goods, were likewise allowed to be drawn back upon that of
wine. The last duty that has been particularly imposed upon wine,
that of 1780, is allowed to be wholly drawn back, an indulgence
which, when so many heavy duties are retained, most probably
could never occasion the exportation of a single ton of wine.
These rules take place with regard to all places of lawful
exportation, except the British colonies in America.
     The 15th Charles II, c. 7, called An Act for the
Encouragement of Trade, had given Great Britain the monopoly of
supplying the colonies with all the commodities of the growth or
manufacture of Europe; and consequently with wines. In a country
of so extensive a coast as our North American and West Indian
colonies, where our authority was always so very slender, and
where the inhabitants were allowed to carry out, in their own
ships, their non-enumerated commodities, at first to all parts of
Europe, and afterwards to all parts of Europe south of Cape
Finisterre, it is not very probable that this monopoly could ever
be much respected; and they probably, at all times, found means
of bringing back some cargo from the countries to which they were
allowed to carry out one. They seem, however, to have found some
difficulty in importing European wines from the places of their
growth, and they could not well import them from Great Britain
where they were loaded with many heavy duties, of which a
considerable part was not drawn back upon exportation. Maderia
wine, not being a European commodity, could be imported directly
into America and the West Indies, countries which, in all their
non-enumerated commodities, enjoyed a free trade to the island of
Maderia. These circumstances had probably introduced that general
taste for Maderia wine, which our officers found established in
all our colonies at the commencement of the war, which began in
1755, and which they brought back with them to the mother
country, where that wine had not been much in fashion before.
Upon the conclusion of that war, in 1763 (by the 4th George III,
c. 15, sect. 12), all the duties, except L3 10s., were allowed to
be drawn back upon the exportation to the colonies of all wines,
except French wines, to the commerce and consumption of which
national prejudice would allow no sort of encouragement. The
period between the granting of this indulgence and the revolt of
our North American colonies was probably too short to admit of
any considerable change in the customs of those countries.
     The same act, which, in the drawback upon all wines, except
French wines, thus favoured the colonies so much more than other
countries; in those upon the greater part of other commodities
favoured them much less. Upon the exportation of the greater part
of commodities to other countries, half the old subsidy was drawn
back. But this law enacted that no part of that duty should be
drawn back upon the exportation to the colonies of any
commodities, of the growth or manufacture either of Europe or the
East Indies, except wines, white calicoes, and muslins.
     Drawbacks were, perhaps, originally granted for the
encouragement of the carrying trade, which, as the freight of the
ships is frequently paid by foreigners in money, was supposed to
be peculiarly fitted for bringing gold and silver into the
country. But though the carrying trade certainly deserves no
peculiar encouragement, though the motive of the institution was
perhaps abundantly foolish, the institution itself seems
reasonable enough. Such drawbacks cannot force into this trade a
greater share of the capital of the country than what would have
gone to it of its own accord had there been no duties upon
importation. They only prevent its being excluded altogether by
those duties. The carrying trade, though it deserves no
preference, ought not to be precluded, but to be left free like
all other trades. It is a necessary resource for those capitals
which cannot find employment either in the agriculture or in the
manufactures of the country, either in its home trade or in its
foreign trade of consumption.
     The revenue of the customs, instead of suffering, profits
from such drawbacks by that part of the duty which is retained.
If the whole duties had been retained, the foreign goods upon
which they are paid could seldom have been exported, nor
consequently imported, for want of a market. The duties,
therefore, of which a part is retained would never have been
paid.
     These reasons seem sufficiently to justify drawbacks, and
would justify them, though the whole duties, whether upon the
produce of domestic industry, or upon foreign goods, were always
drawn back upon exportation. The revenue of excise would in this
case, indeed, suffer a little, and that of the customs a good
deal more; but the natural balance of industry, the natural
division and distribution of labour, which is always more or less
disturbed by such duties, would be more nearly re-established by
such a regulation.
     These reasons, however, will justify drawbacks only upon
exporting goods to those countries which are altogether foreign
and independent, not to those in which our merchants and
manufacturers enjoy a monopoly. A drawback, for example, upon the
exportation of European goods to our American colonies will not
always occasion a greater exportation than what would have taken
place without it. By means of the monopoly which our merchants
and manufacturers enjoy there, the same quantity might
frequently, perhaps, be sent thither, though the whole duties
were retained. The drawback, therefore, may frequently be pure
loss to the revenue of excise and customs, without altering the
state of the trade, or rendering it in any respect more
extensive. How far such drawbacks can be justified, as a proper
encouragement to the industry of our colonies, or how far it is
advantageous to the mother country, that they should be exempted
from taxes which are paid by all the rest of their fellow
subjects, will appear hereafter when I come to treat the
colonies.
     Drawbacks, however, it must always be understood, are useful
only in those cases in which the goods for the exportation of
which they are given are really exported to some foreign country;
and not clandestinely re-imported into our own. That some
drawbacks, particularly those upon tobacco, have frequently been
abused in this manner, and have given occasion to many frauds
equally hurtful both to the revenue and to the fair trader, is
well known.

                          CHAPTER V

                         Of Bounties 

     BOUNTIES upon exportation are, in Great Britain, frequently
petitioned for, and sometimes granted to the produce of
particular branches of domestic industry. By means of them our
merchants and manufacturers, it is pretended, will be enabled to
sell their goods as cheap, or cheaper than their rivals in the
foreign market. A greater quantity, it is said, will thus be
exported, and the balance of trade consequently turned more in
favour of our own country. We cannot give our workmen a monopoly
in the foreign as we have done in the home market. We cannot
force foreigners to buy their goods as we have done our own
countrymen. The next best expedient, it has been thought,
therefore, is to pay them for buying. It is in this manner that
the mercantile system proposes to enrich the whole country, and
to put money into all our pockets by means of the balance of
trade.
     Bounties, it is allowed, ought to be given to those branches
of trade only which cannot be carried on without them. But every
branch of trade in which the merchant can sell his goods for a
price which replaces to him, with the ordinary profits of stock,
the whole capital employed in preparing and sending them to
market, can be carried on without a bounty. Every such branch is
evidently upon a level with all the other branches of trade which
are carried on without bounties, and cannot therefore require one
more than they. Those trades only require bounties in which the
merchant is obliged to sell his goods for a price which does not
replace to him his capital, together with the ordinary profit; or
in which he is obliged to sell them for less than it really costs
him to send them to market. The bounty is given in order to make
up this loss, and to encourage him to continue, or perhaps to
begin, a trade of which the expense is supposed to be greater
than the returns, of which every operation eats up a part of the
capital employed in it, and which is of such a nature that, if
all other trades resembled it, there would soon be no capital
left in the country.
     The trades, it is to be observed, which are carried on by
means of bounties, are the only ones which can be carried on
between two nations for any considerable time together, in such a
manner as that one of them shall always and regularly lose, or
sell its goods for less than it really costs to send them to
market. But if the bounty did not repay to the merchant what he
would otherwise lose upon the price of his goods, his own
interest would soon oblige him to employ his stock in another
way, or to find out a trade in which the price of the goods would
replace to him, with the ordinary profit, the capital employment
in sending them to market. The effect of bounties, like that of
all the other expedients of the mercantile system, can only be to
force the trade of a country into a channel much less
advantageous than that in which it would naturally run of its own
accord.
     The ingenious and well-informed author of the tracts upon
the corn trade has shown very clearly that, since the bounty upon
the exportation of corn was first established, the price of the
corn exported, valued moderately enough, has exceeded that of the
corn imported, valued very high, by a much greater sum than the
amount of the whole bounties which have been paid during that
period. This, he imagines, upon the true principles of the
mercantile system, is a clear proof that this forced corn trade
is beneficial to the nation; the value of the exportation
exceeding that of the importation by a much greater sum than the
whole extraordinary expense which the public has been at in order
to get it exported. He does not consider that this extraordinary
expense, or the bounty, is the smallest part of the expense which
the exportation of corn really costs the society. The capital
which the farmer employed in raising it must likewise be taken
into the account. Unless the price of the corn when sold in the
foreign markets replaces, not only the bounty, but this capital,
together with the ordinary profits of stock, the society is a
loser by the difference, or the national stock is so much
diminished. But the very reason for which it has been thought
necessary to grant a bounty is the supposed insufficiency of the
price to do this.
     The average price of corn, it has been said, has fallen
considerably since the establishment of the bounty. That the
average price of corn began to fall somewhat towards the end of
the last century, and has continued to do so during the course of
the sixty-four first years of the present, I have already
endeavoured to show. But this event, supposing it to be as real
as I believe it to be, must have happened in spite of the bounty,
and cannot possibly have happened in consequence of it. It has
happened in France, as well as in England, though in France there
was not only no bounty, but, till 1764, the exportation of corn
was subjected to a general prohibition. This gradual fall in the
average price of grain, it is probable, therefore, is ultimately
owing neither to the one regulation nor to the other. but to that
gradual and insensible rise in the real value of silver, which,
in the first book in this discourse, I have endeavoured to show
has taken place in the general market of Europe during the course
of the present century. It seems to be altogether impossible that
the bounty could ever contribute to lower the price of grain.
     In years of plenty, it has already been observed, the
bounty, by occasioning an extraordinary exportation, necessarily
keeps up the price of corn in the home market above what it would
naturally fall to. To do so was the avowed purpose of the
institution. In years of scarcity, though the bounty is
frequently suspended, yet the great exportation which it
occasions in years of plenty must frequently hinder more or less
the plenty of one year from relieving the scarcity of another.
Both in years of plenty and in years of scarcity, therefore, the
bounty necessarily tends to raise the money price of corn
somewhat higher than it otherwise would be in the home market.
     That, in the actual state of tillage, the bounty must
necessarily have this tendency will not, I apprehend, be disputed
by any reasonable person. But it has been thought by many people
that it tends to encourage tillage, and that in two different
ways; first, by opening a more extensive foreign market to the
corn of the farmer, it tends, they imagine, to increase the
demand for, and consequently the production of that commodity;
and secondly, by securing to him a better price than he could
otherwise expect in the actual state of tillage, it tends, they
suppose, to encourage tillage. This double encouragement must,
they imagine, in a long period of years, occasion such an
increase in the production of corn as may lower its price in the
home market much more than the bounty can raise it, in the actual
state which tillage may, at the end of that period, happen to be
in.
     I answer, that whatever extension of the foreign market can
be occasioned by the bounty must, in every particular year, be
altogether at the expense of the home market; as every bushel of
corn which is exported by means of the bounty, and which would
not have been exported without the bounty, would have remained in
the home market to increase the consumption and to lower the
price of that commodity. The corn bounty, it is to be observed,
as well as every other bounty upon exportation, imposes two
different taxes upon the people; first, the tax which they are
obliged to contribute in order to pay the bounty; and secondly,
the tax which arises from the advanced price of the commodity in
the home market, and which, as the whole body of the people are
purchasers of corn, must, in this particular commodity, be paid
by the whole body of the people. In this particular commodity,
therefore, this second tax is by much the heavier of the two. Let
us suppose that, taking one year with another, the bounty of five
shillings upon the exportation of the quarter of wheat raises the
price of that commodity in the home market only sixpence the
bushel, or four shillings the quarter, higher than it otherwise
would have been in the actual state of the crop. Even upon this
very moderate supposition, the great body of the people, over and
above contributing the tax which pays the bounty of five
shillings upon every quarter of wheat exported, must pay another
of four shillings upon every quarter which they themselves
consume. But, according to the very well informed author of the
tracts upon the corn trade, the average proportion of the corn
exported to that consumed at home is not more than that of one to
thirty-one. For every five shillings, therefore, which they
contribute to the payment of the first tax, they must contribute
six pounds four shillings to the payment of the second. So very
heavy a tax upon the first necessary of life must either reduce
the subsistence of the labouring poor, or it must occasion some
augmentation in their pecuniary wages proportionable to that in
the pecuniary price of their subsistence. So far as it operates
in the one way, it must reduce the ability of the labouring poor
to educate and bring up their children, and must, so far, tend to
restrain the population of the country. So far as it operates in
the other, it must reduce the ability of the employers of the
poor to employ so great a number as they otherwise might do, and
must, so far, tend to restrain the industry of the country. The
extraordinary exportation of corn, therefore, occasioned by the
bounty, not only, in every particular year, diminishes the home,
just as much as it extends the foreign, market and consumption,
but, by restraining the population and industry of the country,
its final tendency is to stunt and restrain the gradual extension
of the home market; and thereby, in the long run, rather to
diminish, than to augment, the whole market and consumption of
corn.
     This enhancement of the money price of corn, however, it has
been thought, by rendering that commodity more profitable to the
farmer, must necessarily encourage its production.
     I answer, that this might be the case if the effect of the
bounty was to raise the real price of corn, or to enable the
farmer, with an equal quantity of it, to maintain a greater
number of labourers in the same manner, whether liberal,
moderate, or scanty, that other labourers are commonly maintained
in his neighbourhood. But neither the bounty, it is evident, nor
any other human institution can have any such effect. It is not
the real, but the nominal price of corn, which can in any
considerable degree be affected by the bounty. And though the tax
which that institution imposes upon the whole body of the people
may be very burdensome to those who pay it, it is of very little
advantage to those who receive it.
     The real effect of the bounty is not so much to raise the
real value of corn as to degrade the real value of silver, or to
make an equal quantity of it exchange for a smaller quantity, not
only of corn, but of all other homemade commodities: for the
money price of corn regulates that of all other home-made
commodities.
     It regulates the money price of labour, which must always be
such as to enable the labourer to purchase a quantity of corn
sufficient to maintain him and his family either in the liberal,
moderate, or scanty manner in which the advancing, stationary, or
declining circumstances of the society oblige his employers to
maintain him.
     It regulates the money price of all the other parts of the
rude produce of land, which, in every period of improvement, must
bear a certain proportion to that of corn, though this proportion
is different in different periods. It regulates, for example, the
money price of grass and hay, of butcher's meat, of horses, and
the maintenance of horses, of land carriage consequently, or of
the greater part of the inland commerce of the country.
     By regulating the money price of all the other parts of the
rude produce of land, it regulates that of the materials of
almost all manufactures. By regulating the money price of labour,
it regulates that of manufacturing art and industry. And by
regulating both, it regulates that of the complete manufacture.
The money price of labour, and of everything that is the produce
either of land or labour, must necessarily either rise or fall in
proportion to the money price of corn.
     Though in consequence of the bounty, therefore, the farmer
should be enabled to sell his corn for four shillings a bushel
instead of three-and-sixpence, and to pay his landlord a money
rent proportionable to this rise in the money price of his
produce, yet if, in consequence of this rise in the price of
corn, four shillings will purchase no more homemade goods of any
other kind than three-and-sixpence would have done before,
neither the circumstances of the farmer nor those of the landlord
will be much mended by this change. The farmer will not be able
to cultivate much better: the landlord will not be able to live
much better. In the purchase of foreign commodities this
enhancement in the price of corn may give them some little
advantage. In that of home-made commodities it can give them none
at all. And almost the whole expense of the farmer, and the far
greater part even of that of the landlord, is in homemade
commodities.
     That degradation in the value of silver which is the effect
of the fertility of the mines, and which operates equally, or
very near equally, through the greater part of the commercial
world, is a matter of very little consequence to any particular
country. The consequent rise of all money prices, though it does
not make those who receive them really richer, does make them
really poorer. A service of plate becomes really cheaper, and
everything else remains precisely of the same real value as
before.
     But that degradation in the value of silver which, being the
effect either of the peculiar situation or of the political
institutions of a particular country, takes place only in that
country, is a matter of very great consequence, which, far from
tending to make anybody really richer, tends to make everybody
really poorer. The rise in the money price of all commodities,
which is in this case peculiar to that country, tends to
discourage more or less every sort of industry which is carried
on within it, and to enable foreign nations, by furnishing almost
all sorts of goods for a smaller quantity of silver than its own
workmen can afford to do, to undersell them, not only in the
foreign, but even in the home market.
     It is the peculiar situation of Spain and Portugal as
proprietors of the mines to be the distributors of gold and
silver to all the other countries of Europe. Those metals ought
naturally, therefore, to be somewhat cheaper in Spain and
Portugal than in any other part of Europe. The difference,
however, should be no more than the amount of the freight and
insurance; and, on account of the great value and small bulk of
those metals, their freight is no great matter, and their
insurance is the same as that of any other goods of equal value.
Spain and Portugal, therefore, could suffer very little from
their peculiar situation, if they did not aggravate its
disadvantages by their political institutions.
     Spain by taxing, and Portugal by prohibiting the exportation
of gold and silver, load that exportation with the expense of
smuggling, and raise the value of those metals in other countries
so much more above what it is in their own by the whole amount of
this expense. When you dam up a stream of water, as soon as the
dam is full as much water must run over the dam-head as if there
was no dam at all. The prohibition of exportation cannot detain a
greater quantity of gold and silver in Spain and Portugal than
what they can afford to employ, than what the annual produce of
their land and labour will allow them to employ, in coin, plate,
gilding, and other ornaments of gold and silver. When they have
got this quantity the dam is full, and the whole stream which
flows in afterwards must run over. The annual exportation of gold
and silver from Spain and Portugal accordingly is, by all
accounts, notwithstanding these restraints, very near equal to
the whole annual importation. As the water, however, must always
be deeper behind the dam-head than before it, so the quantity of
gold and silver which these restraints detain in Spain and
Portugal must, in proportion to the annual produce of their land
and labour, be greater than what is to be found in other
countries. The higher and stronger the dam-head, the greater must
be the difference in the depth of water behind and before it. The
higher the tax, the higher the penalties with which the
prohibition is guarded, the more vigilant and severe the police
which looks after the execution of the law, the greater must be
the difference in the proportion of gold and silver to the annual
produce of the land and labour of Spain and Portugal, and to that
of other countries. It is said accordingly to be very
considerable, and that you frequently find there a profusion of
plate in houses where there is nothing else which would, in other
countries, be thought suitable or correspondent to this sort of
magnificence. The cheapness of gold and silver, or what is the
same thing, the dearness of all commodities, which is the
necessary effect of this redundancy of the precious metals,
discourages both the agriculture and manufactures of Spain and
Portugal, and enables foreign nations to supply them with many
sorts of rude, and with almost all sorts of manufactured produce,
for a smaller quantity of gold and silver than what they
themselves can either raise or make them for at home. The tax and
prohibition operate in two different ways. They not only lower
very much the value of the precious metals in Spain and Portugal,
but by detaining there a certain quantity of those metals which
would otherwise flow over other countries, they keep up their
value in those other countries somewhat above what it otherwise
would be, and thereby give those countries a double advantage in
their commerce with Spain and Portugal. Open the flood-gates, and
there will presently be less water above, and more below, the
dam-head, and it will soon come to a level in both places. Remove
the tax and the prohibition, and as the quantity of gold and
silver will diminish considerably in Spain and Portugal, so it
will increase somewhat in other countries, and the value of those
metals, their proportion to the annual produce of land and
labour, will soon come to a level, or very near to a level, in
all. The loss which Spain and Portugal could sustain by this
exportation of their gold and silver would be altogether nominal
and imaginary. The nominal value of their goods, and of the
annual produce of their land and labour, would fall, and would be
expressed or represented by a smaller quantity of silver than
before; but their real value would be the same as before, and
would be sufficient to maintain, command, and employ, the same
quantity of labour. As the nominal value of their goods would
fall, the real value of what remained of their gold and silver
would rise, and a smaller quantity of those metals would answer
all the same purposes of commerce and circulation which had
employed a greater quantity before. The gold and silver which
would go abroad would not go abroad for nothing, but would bring
back an equal value of goods of some kind or another. Those
goods, too, would not be all matters of mere luxury and expense,
to be consumed by idle people who produce nothing in return for
their consumption. As the real wealth and revenue of idle people
would not be augmented by this extraordinary exportation of gold
and silver, so neither would their consumption be much augmented
by it. Those goods would, probably, the greater part of them, and
certainly some part of them, consist in materials, tools, and
provisions, for the employment and maintenance of industrious
people, who would reproduce, with a profit, the full value of
their consumption. A part of the dead stock of the society would
thus be turned into active stock, and would put into motion a
greater quantity of industry than had been employed before. The
annual produce of their land and labour would immediately be
augmented a little, and in a few years would, probably, be
augmented a great deal; their industry being thus relieved from
one of the most oppressive burdens which it at present labours
under.
     The bounty upon the exportation of corn necessarily operates
exactly in the same way as this absurd policy of Spain and
Portugal. Whatever be the actual state of tillage, it renders our
corn somewhat dearer in the home market than it otherwise would
be in that state, and somewhat cheaper in the foreign; and as the
average money price of corn regulates more or less that of all
other commodities, it lowers the value of silver considerably in
the one, and tends to raise it a little in the other. It enables
foreigners, the Dutch in particular, not only to eat our corn
cheaper than they otherwise could do, but sometimes to eat it
cheaper than even our own people can do upon the same occasions,
as we are assured by an excellent authority, that of Sir Matthew
Decker. It hinders our own workmen from furnishing their goods
for so small a quantity of silver as they otherwise might do; and
enables the Dutch to furnish theirs for a smaller. It tends to
render our manufactures somewhat dearer in every market, and
theirs somewhat cheaper than they otherwise would be, and
consequently to give their industry a double advantage over our
own.
     The bounty, as it raises in the home market not so much the
real as the nominal price of our corn, as it augments, not the
quantity of labour which a certain quantity of corn can maintain
and employ but only the quantity of silver which it will exchange
for, it discourages our manufactures, without rendering any
considerable service either to our farmers or country gentlemen.
It puts, indeed, a little more money into the pockets of both,
and it will perhaps be somewhat difficult to persuade the greater
part of them that this is not rendering them a very considerable
service. But if this money sinks in its value, in the quantity of
labour, provisions, and homemade commodities of all different
kinds which it is capable of purchasing as much as it rises in
its quantity, the service will be little more than nominal and
imaginary.
     There is, perhaps, but one set of men in the whole
commonwealth to whom the bounty either was or could be
essentially serviceable. These were the corn merchants, the
exporters and importers of corn. In years of plenty the bounty
necessarily occasioned a greater exportation than would otherwise
have taken place; and by hindering the plenty of one year from
relieving the scarcity of another, it occasioned in years of
scarcity a greater importation than would otherwise have been
necessary. It increased the business of the corn merchant in
both; and in years of scarcity, it not only enabled him to import
a greater quantity, but to sell it for a better price, and
consequently with a greater profit than he could otherwise have
made, if the plenty of one year had not been more or less
hindered from relieving the scarcity of another. It is in this
set of men, accordingly, that I have observed the greatest zeal
for the continuance or renewal of the bounty.
     Our country gentlemen, when they imposed the high duties
upon the importation of foreign corn, which in times of moderate
plenty amount to a prohibition, and when they established the
bounty, seem to have imitated the conduct of our manufacturers.
By the one institution, they secured to themselves the monopoly
of the home market, and by the other they endeavoured to prevent
that market from ever being overstocked with their commodity. By
both they endeavoured to raise its real value, in the same manner
as our manufacturers had, by the like institutions, raised the
real value of many different sorts of manufactured goods. They
did not perhaps attend to the great and essential difference
which nature has established between corn and almost every other
sort of goods. When, either by the monopoly of the home market,
or by a bounty upon exportation, you enable our woollen or linen
manufacturers to sell their goods for somewhat a better price
than they otherwise could get for them, you raise, not only the
nominal, but the real price of those goods. You render them
equivalent to a greater quantity of labour and subsistence, you
increase not only the nominal, but the real profit, the real
wealth and revenue of those manufacturers, and you enable them
either to live better themselves, or to employ a greater quantity
of labour in those particular manufactures. You really encourage
those manufactures, and direct towards them a greater quantity of
the industry of the country than what would probably go to them
of its own accord. But when by the like institutions you raise
the nominal or money-price of corn, you do not raise its real
value. You do not increase the real wealth, the real revenue
either of our farmers or country gentlemen. You do not encourage
the growth of corn because you do not enable them to maintain and
employ more labourers in raising it. The nature of things has
stamped upon corn a real value which cannot be altered by merely
altering its money price. No bounty upon exportation, no monopoly
of the home market, can raise that value. The freest competition
cannot lower it. Through the world in general that value is equal
to the quantity of labour which it can maintain, and in every
particular place it is equal to the quantity of labour which it
can maintain in the way, whether liberal, moderate, or scanty, in
which labour is commonly maintained in that place. Woollen or
linen cloth are not the regulating commodities by which the real
value of all other commodities must be finally measured and
determined; corn is. The real value of every other commodity is
finally measured and determined by the proportion which its
average money price bears to the average money price of corn. The
real value of corn does not vary with those variations in its
average money price, which sometimes occur from one century to
another. It is the real value of silver which varies with them.
     Bounties upon the exportation of any homemade commodity are
liable, first to that general objection which may be made to all
the different expedients of the mercantile system; the objection
of forcing some part of the industry of the country into a
channel less advantageous than that in which it would run of its
own accord: and, secondly, to the particular objection of forcing
it, not only into a channel that is less advantageous, but into
one that is actually disadvantageous; the trade which cannot be
carried on but by means of a bounty being necessarily a losing
trade. The bounty upon the exportation of corn is liable to this
further objection, that it can in no respect promote the raising
of that particular commodity of which it was meant to encourage
the production. When our country gentlemen, therefore, demanded
the establishment of the bounty, though they acted in imitation
of our merchants and manufacturers, they did not act with that
complete comprehension of their own interest which commonly
directs the conduct of those two other orders of people. They
loaded the public revenue with a very considerable expense; they
imposed a very heavy tax upon the whole body of the people; but
they did not, in any sensible degree, increase the real value of
their own commodity; and by lowering somewhat the real value of
silver, they discouraged in some degree, the general industry of
the country, and, instead of advancing, retarded more or less the
improvement of their own lands, which necessarily depends upon
the general industry of the country.
     To encourage the production of any commodity, a bounty upon
production, one should imagine, would have a more direct
operation than one upon exportation. It would, besides, impose
only one tax upon the people, that which they must contribute in
order to pay the bounty. Instead of raising, it would tend to
lower the price of the commodity in the home market; and thereby,
instead of imposing a second tax upon the people, it might, at
least, in part, repay them for what they had contributed to the
first. Bounties upon production, however, have been very rarely
granted. The prejudices established by the commercial system have
taught us to believe that national wealth arises more immediately
from exportation than from production. It has been more favoured
accordingly, as the more immediate means of bringing money into
the country. Bounties upon production, it has been said too, have
been found by experience more liable to frauds than those upon
exportation. How far this is true, I know not. That bounties upon
exportation have been abused to many fraudulent purposes is very
well known. But it is not the interest of merchants and
manufacturers, the great inventors of all these expedients, that
the home market should be overstocked with their goods, an event
which a bounty upon production might sometimes occasion. A bounty
upon exportation, by enabling them to send abroad the surplus
part, and to keep up the price of what remains in the home
market, effectually prevents this. Of all the expedients of the
mercantile system, accordingly, it is the one of which they are
the fondest. I have known the different undertakers of some
particular works agree privately among themselves to give a
bounty out of their own pockets upon the exportation of a certain
proportion of the goods which they dealt in. This expedient
succeeded so well that it more than doubled the price of their
goods in the home market, notwithstanding a very considerable
increase in the produce. The operation of the bounty upon corn
must have been wonderfully different if it has lowered the money
price of that commodity.
     Something like a bounty upon production, however, has been
granted upon some particular occasions. The tonnage bounties
given to the white-herring and whale fisheries may, perhaps, be
considered as somewhat of this nature. They tend directly, it may
be supposed, to render the goods cheaper in the home market than
they otherwise would be. In other respects their effects, it must
be acknowledged, are the same as those of bounties upon
exportation. By means of them a part of the capital of the
country is employed in bringing goods to market, of which the
price does not repay the cost together with the ordinary profits
of stock.
     But though the tonnage bounties of those fisheries do not
contribute to the opulence of the nation, it may perhaps be
thought that they contribute to its defence by augmenting the
number of its sailors and shipping. This, it may be alleged, may
sometimes be done by means of such bounties at a much smaller
expense than by keeping up a great standing navy, if I may use
such an expression, in the same way as a standing army.
     Notwithstanding these favourable allegations, however, the
following considerations dispose me to believe that, in granting
at least one of these bounties, the legislature has been very
grossly imposed upon.
     First, the herring buss bounty seems too large.
     From the commencement of the winter fishing, 1771, to the
end of the winter fishing, 1781, the tonnage bounty upon the
herring buss fishery has been at thirty shillings the ton. During
these eleven years the whole number of barrels caught by the
herring buss fishery of Scotland amounted to 378,347. The
herrings caught and cured at sea are called sea-sticks. In order
to render them what are called merchantable herrings, it is
necessary to repack them with an additional quantity of salt; and
in this case, it is reckoned that three barrels of sea-sticks are
usually repacked into two barrels of merchantable herrings. The
number of barrels of merchantable herrings, therefore, caught
during these eleven years will amount only, according to this
account, to 252,231 1/3. During these eleven years the tonnage
bounties paid amounted to L155,463 11s. or to 8s. 2 1/4d. upon
every barrel of seasticks, and to 12s. 3 3/4d. upon every barrel
of merchantable herrings.
     The salt with which these herrings are cured is sometimes
Scotch and sometimes foreign salt, both which are delivered free
of all excise duty to the fish-curers. The excise duty upon
Scotch salt is at present 1s. 6d., that upon foreign salt 10s.
the bushel. A barrel of herrings is supposed to require about one
bushel and one-fourth of a bushel foreign salt. Two bushels are
the supposed average of Scotch salt. If the herrings are entered
for exportation, no part of this duty is paid up; if entered for
home consumption, whether the herrings were cured with foreign or
with Scotch salt, only one shilling the barrel is paid up. It was
the old Scotch duty upon a bushel of salt, the quantity which, at
a low estimation, had been supposed necessary for curing a barrel
of herrings. In Scotland, foreign salt is very little used for
any other purpose but the curing of fish. But from the 5th April
1771 to the 5th April 1782, the quantity of foreign salt imported
amounted to 936,974 bushels, at eighty-four pounds the bushel:
the quantity of Scotch salt, delivered from the works to the
fish-curers, to no more than 168,226, at fifty-six pounds the
bushel only. It would appear, therefore, that it is principally
foreign salt that is used in the fisheries. Upon every barrel of
herrings exported there is, besides, a bounty of 2s. 8d., and
more than two-thirds of the buss caught herrings are exported.
Put all these things together and you will find that, during
these eleven years, every barrel of buss caught herrings, cured
with Scotch salt when exported, has cost government L1 7s. 5
3/4d.; and when entered for home consumption 14s. 3 3/4d.; and
that every barrel cured with foreign salt, when exported, has
cost government L1 7s. 5 3/4d.; and when entered for home
consumption L1. 3s. 9 3/4d. The price of a barrel of good
merchantable herrings runs from seventeen and eighteen to four
and five and twenty shillings, about a guinea at an average.
     Secondly, the bounty to the white-herring fishery is a
tonnage bounty; and is proportioned to the burden of the ship,
not to her diligence or success in the fishery; and it has, I am
afraid, been too common for vessels to fit out for the sole
purpose of catching, not the fish, but the bounty. In the year
1759, when the bounty was at fifty shillings the ton, the whole
buss fishery of Scotland brought in only four barrels of
sea-sticks. In that year each barrel of sea-sticks cost
government in bounties alone L113 15s.; each barrel of
merchantable herrings L159 7s. 6d.
     Thirdly, the mode of fishing for which this tonnage bounty
in the white-herring fishery has been given (by busses or decked
vessels from twenty to eighty tons burthen), seems not so well
adapted to the situation of Scotland as to that of Holland, from
the practice of which country it appears to have been borrowed.
Holland lies at a great distance from the seas to which herrings
are known principally to resort, and can, therefore, carry on
that fishery only in decked vessels, which can carry water and
provisions sufficient for a voyage to a distant sea. But the
Hebrides or western islands, the islands of Shetland, and the
northern and northwestern coasts of Scotland, the countries in
whose neighbourhood the herring fishery is principally carried
on, are everywhere intersected by arms of the sea, which run up a
considerable way into the land, and which, in the language of the
country, are called sea-lochs. It is to these sea-lochs that the
herrings principally resort during the seasons in which they
visit those seas; for the visits of this and, I am assured, of
many other sorts of fish are not quite regular and constant. A
boat fishery, therefore, seems to be the mode of fishing best
adapted to the peculiar situation of Scotland, the fishers
carrying the herrings on shore, as fast as they are taken, to be
either cured or consumed fresh. But the great encouragement which
a bounty of thirty shillings the ton gives to the buss fishery is
necessarily a discouragement to the boat fishery, which, having
no such bounty, cannot bring its cured fish to market upon the
same terms as the buss fishery. The boat fishery, accordingly,
which before the establishment of the buss bounty was very
considerable, and is said have employed a number of seamen not
inferior to what the buss fishery employs at present, is now gone
almost entirely to decay. Of the former extent, however, of this
now ruined and abandoned fishery, I must acknowledge that I
cannot pretend to speak with much precision. As no bounty was
paid upon the outfit of the boat fishery, no account was taken of
it by the officers of the customs or salt duties.
     Fourthly, in many parts of Scotland, during certain seasons
of the year, herrings make no inconsiderable part of the food of
the people. A bounty, which tended to lower their price in the
home market, might contribute a good deal to the relief of a
great number of our fellow-subjects, whose circumstances are by
no means affluent. But the herring buss bounty contributes to no
such good purpose. It has ruined the boat fishery, which is, by
far, the best adapted for the supply of the home market, and the
additional bounty of 2s. 8d. the barrel upon exportation carries
the greater part, more than two-thirds, of the produce of the
buss fishery abroad. Between thirty and forty years ago, before
the establishment of the buss bounty, fifteen shillings the
barrel, I have been assured, was the common price of white
herrings. Between ten and fifteen years ago, before the boat
fishery was entirely ruined, the price is said to have run from
seventeen to twenty shillings the barrel. For these last five
years, it has, at an average, been at twenty-five shillings the
barrel. This high price, however, may have been owing to the real
scarcity of the herrings upon the coast of Scotland. I must
observe, too, that the cask or barrel, which is usually sold with
the herrings, and of which the price is included in all the
foregoing prices, has, since the commencement of the American
war, risen to about double its former price, or from about three
shillings to about six shillings. I must likewise observe that
the accounts I have received of the prices of former times have
been by no means quite uniform and consistent; and an old man of
great accuracy and experience has assured me that, more than
fifty years ago, a guinea was the usual price of a barrel of good
merchantable herrings; and this, I imagine, may still be looked
upon as the average price. All accounts, however, I think, agree
that the price has not been lowered in the home market in
consequence of the buss bounty.
     When the undertakers of fisheries, after such liberal
bounties have been bestowed upon them, continue to sell their
commodity at the same, or even at a higher price than they were
accustomed to do before, it might be expected that their profits
should be very great; and it is not improbable that those of some
individuals may have been so. In general, however, I have every
reason to believe they have been quite otherwise. The usual
effect of such bounties is to encourage rash undertakers to
adventure in a business which they do not understand, and what
they lose by their own negligence and ignorance more than
compensates all that they can gain by the utmost liberality of
government. In 1750, by the same act, which first gave the bounty
of thirty shillings the ton for the encouragement of the
white-herring fishery (the 23rd George II, c. 24), a joint-stock
company was erected, with a capital of five hundred thousand
pounds, to which the subscribers (over and above all other
encouragements, the tonnage bounty just now mentioned, the
exportation bounty of two shillings and eightpence the barrel,
the delivery of both British and foreign salt duty free) were,
during the space of fourteen years, for every hundred pounds
which they subscribed and paid in to the stock of the society,
entitled to three pounds a year, to be paid by the
receiver-general of the customs in equal half-yearly payments.
Besides this great company, the residence of whose governor and
directors was to be in London, it was declared lawful to erect
different fishing-chambers in all the different outports of the
kingdom, provided a sum not less than ten thousand pounds was
subscribed into the capital of each, to be managed at its own
risk, and for its own profit and loss. The same annuity, and the
same encouragements of all kinds, were given to the trade of
those inferior chambers as to that of the great company. The
subscription of the great company was soon filled up, and several
different fishing-chambers were erected in the different outports
of the kingdom. In spite of all these encouragements, almost all
those different companies, both great and small, lost either the
whole, or the greater part of their capitals; scarce a vestige
now remains of any of them, and the white-herring fishery is now
entirely, or almost entirely, carried on by private adventurers.
     If any particular manufacture was necessary, indeed, for the
defence of the society, it might not always be prudent to depend
upon our neighbours for the supply; and if such manufacture could
not otherwise be supported at home, it might not be unreasonable
that all the other branches of industry should be taxed in order
to support it. The bounties upon the exportation of British-made
sailcloth and British-made gunpowder may, perhaps, both be
vindicated upon this principle.
     But though it can very seldom be reasonable to tax the
industry of the great body of the people in order to support that
of some particular class of manufacturers, yet in the wantonness
of great prosperity, when the public enjoys a greater revenue
than it knows well what to do with, to give such bounties to
favourite manufactures may, perhaps, be as natural as to incur
any other idle expense. In public as well as in private expenses,
great wealth may, perhaps, frequently be admitted as an apology
for great folly. But there must surely be something more than
ordinary absurdity in continuing such profusion in times of
general difficulty and distress.
     What is called a bounty is sometimes no more than a
drawback, and consequently is not liable to the same objections
as what is properly a bounty. The bounty, for example, upon
refined sugar exported may be considered as a drawback of the
duties upon the brown and muscovado sugars from which it is made.
The bounty upon wrought silk exported, a drawback of the duties
upon raw and thrown silk imported. The bounty upon gunpowder
exported, a drawback of the duties upon brimstone and saltpetre
imported. In the language of the customs those allowances only
are called drawbacks which are given upon goods exported in the
same form in which they are imported. When that form has been so
altered by manufacture of any kind as to come under a new
denomination, they are called bounties.
     Premiums given by the public to artists and manufacturers
who excel in their particular occupations are not liable to the
same objections as bounties. By encouraging extraordinary
dexterity and ingenuity, they serve to keep up the emulation of
the workmen actually employed in those respective occupations,
and are not considerable enough to turn towards any one of them a
greater share of the capital of the country than what would go to
it of its own accord. Their tendency is not to overturn the
natural balance of employments, but to render the work which is
done in each as perfect and complete as possible. The expense of
premiums, besides, is very trifling; that of bounties very great.
The bounty upon corn alone has sometimes cost the public in one
year more than three hundred thousand pounds. 
       DIGRESSION CONCERNING THE CORN TRADE AND CORN LAWS 
     I cannot conclude this chapter concerning bounties without
observing that the praises which have been bestowed upon the law
which establishes the bounty upon the exportation of corn, and
upon that system of regulations which is connected with it, are
altogether unmerited. A particular examination of the nature of
the corn trade, and of the principal British laws which relate to
it. will sufficiently demonstrate the truth of this assertion.
The great importance of this subject must justify the length of
the digression.
     The trade of the corn merchant is composed of four different
branches, which, though they may sometimes be all carried on by
the same person, are in their own nature four separate and
distinct trades. These are, first, the trade of the inland
dealer; secondly, that of the merchant importer for home
consumption; thirdly, that of the merchant exporter of home
produce for foreign consumption; and, fourthly, that of the
merchant carrier, or of the importer of corn in order to export
it again.
     I. The interest of the inland dealer, and that of the great
body of the people, how opposite soever they may at first sight
appear, are, even in years of the greatest scarcity, exactly the
same. It is his interest to raise the price of his corn as high
as the real scarcity of the season requires, and it can never be
his interest to raise it higher. By raising the price he
discourages the consumption, and puts everybody more or less, but
particularly the inferior ranks of people, upon thrift and good
management. If, by raising it too high, he discourages the
consumption so much that the supply of the season is likely to go
beyond the consumption of the season, and to last for some time
after the next crop begins to come in, he runs the hazard, not
only of losing a considerable part of his corn by natural causes,
but of being obliged to sell what remains of it for much less
than what he might have had for it several months before. If by
not raising the price high enough he discourages the consumption
so little that the supply of the season is likely to fall short
of the consumption of the season, he not only loses a part of the
profit which he might otherwise have made, but he exposes the
people to suffer before the end of the season, instead of the
hardships of a dearth, the dreadful horrors of a famine. It is
the interest of the people that their daily, weekly, and monthly
consumption should be proportioned as exactly as possible to the
supply of the season. The interest of the inland corn dealer is
the same. By supplying them, as nearly as he can judge, in this
proportion, he is likely to sell all his corn for the highest
price, and with the greatest profit; and his knowledge of the
state of the crop, and of his daily, weekly, and monthly sales,
enable him to judge, with more or less accuracy, how far they
really are supplied in this manner. Without intending the
interest of the people, he is necessarily led, by a regard to his
own interest, to treat them, even in years of scarcity, pretty
much in the same manner as the prudent master of a vessel is
sometimes obliged to treat his crew. When he foresees that
provisions are likely to run short, he puts them upon short
allowance. Though from excess of caution he should sometimes do
this without any real necessity, yet all the inconveniences which
his crew can thereby suffer are inconsiderable in comparison of
the danger, misery, and ruin to which they might sometimes be
exposed by a less provident conduct. Though from excess of
avarice, in the same manner, the inland corn merchant should
sometimes raise the price of his corn somewhat higher than the
scarcity of the season requires, yet all the inconveniences which
the people can suffer from this conduct, which effectually
secures them from a famine in the end of the season, are
inconsiderable in comparison of what they might have been exposed
to by a more liberal way of dealing in the beginning of it. The
corn merchant himself is likely to suffer the most by this excess
of avarice; not only from the indignation which it generally
excites against him, but, though he should escape the effects of
this indignation, from the quantity of corn which it necessarily
leaves upon his hands in the end of the season, and which, if the
next season happens to prove favourable, he must always sell for
a much lower price than he might otherwise have had.
     Were it possible, indeed, for one great company of merchants
to possess themselves of the whole crop of an extensive country,
it might, perhaps, be their interest to deal with it as the Dutch
are said to do with the spiceries of the Moluccas, to destroy or
throw away a considerable part of it in order to keep up the
price of the rest. But it is scarce possible, even by the
violence of law, to establish such an extensive monopoly with
regard to corn; and, wherever the law leaves the trade free, it
is of all commodities the least liable to be engrossed or
monopolized by the force of a few large capitals, which buy up
the greater part of it. Not only its value far exceeds what the
capitals of a few private men are capable of purchasing, but,
supposing they were capable of purchasing it, the manner in which
it is produced renders this purchase practicable. As in every
civilised country it is the commodity of which the annual
consumption is the greatest, so a greater quantity of industry is
annually employed in producing corn than in producing any other
commodity. When it first comes from the ground, too, it is
necessarily divided among a greater number of owners than any
other commodity; and these owners can never be collected into one
place like a number of independent manufacturers, but are
necessarily scattered through all the different corners of the
country. These first owners either immediately supply the
consumers in their own neighbourhood, or they supply other inland
dealers who supply those consumers. The inland dealers in corn,
therefore, including both the farmer and the baker, are
necessarily more numerous than the dealers in any other
commodity, and their dispersed situation renders it altogether
impossible for them to enter into any general combination. If in
a year of scarcity, therefore, any of them should find that he
had a good deal more corn upon hand than, at the current price,
he could hope to dispose of before the end of the season, he
would never think of keeping up this price to his own loss, and
to the sole benefit of his rivals and competitors, but would
immediately lower it, in order to get rid of his corn before the
new crop began to come in. The same motives, the same interests,
which would thus regulate the conduct of any one dealer, would
regulate that of every other, and oblige them all in general to
sell their corn at the price which, according to the best of
their judgment, was most suitable to the scarcity or plenty of
the season.
     Whoever examines with attention the history of the dearths
and famines which have afflicted any part of Europe, during
either the course of the present or that of the two preceding
centuries, of several of which we have pretty exact accounts,
will find, I believe, that a dearth never has arisen from any
combination among the inland dealers in corn, nor from any other
cause but a real scarcity, occasioned sometimes perhaps, and in
some particular places, by the waste of war, but in by far the
greatest number of cases by the fault of the seasons; and that a
famine has never arisen from any other cause but the violence of
government attempting, by improper means, to remedy the
inconveniences of a dearth.
     In an extensive corn country, between all the different
parts of which there is a free commerce and communication, the
scarcity occasioned by the most unfavourable seasons can never be
so great as to produce a famine; and the scantiest crop, if
managed with frugality and economy, will maintain through the
year the same number of people that are commonly fed on a more
affluent manner by one of moderate plenty. The seasons most
unfavourable to the crop are those of excessive drought or
excessive rain. But as corn grows equally upon high and low
lands, upon grounds that are disposed to be too wet, and upon
those that are disposed to be too dry, either the drought or the
rain which is hurtful to one part of the country is favourable to
another; and though both in the wet and in the dry season the
crop is a good deal less than in one more properly tempered, yet
in both what is lost in one part of the country is in some
measure compensated by what is gained in the other. In rice
countries, where the crop not only requires a very moist soil,
but where in a certain period of its growing it must be laid
under water, the effects of a drought are much more dismal. Even
in such countries, however, the drought is, perhaps, scarce ever
so universal as necessarily to occasion a famine, if the
government would allow a free trade. The drought in Bengal, a few
years ago, might probably have occasioned a very great dearth.
Some improper regulations, some injudicious restraints imposed by
the servants of the East India Company upon the rice trade,
contributed, perhaps, to turn that dearth into a famine.
     When the government, in order to remedy the inconveniences
of a dearth, orders all the dealers to sell their corn at what it
supposes a reasonable price, it either hinders them from bringing
it to market, which may sometimes produce a famine even in the
beginning of the season; or if they bring it thither, it enables
the people, and thereby encourages them to consume it so fast as
must necessarily produce a famine before the end of the season.
The unlimited, unrestrained freedom of the corn trade, as it is
the only effectual preventative of the miseries of a famine, so
it is the best palliative of the inconveniences of a dearth; for
the inconveniences of a real scarcity cannot be remedied, they
can only be palliated. No trade deserves more the full protection
of the law, and no trade requires it so much, because no trade is
so much exposed to popular odium.
     In years of scarcity the inferior ranks of people impute
their distress to the avarice of the corn merchant, who becomes
the object of their hatred and indignation. Instead of making
profit upon such occasions, therefore, he is often in danger of
being utterly ruined, and of having his magazines plundered and
destroyed by their violence. It is in years of scarcity, however,
when prices are high, that the corn merchant expects to make his
principal profit. He is generally in contract with some farmers
to furnish him for a certain number of years with a certain
quantity of corn at a certain price. This contract price is
settled according to what is supposed to be the moderate and
reasonable, that is, the ordinary or average price, which before
the late years of scarcity was commonly about eight-and-twenty
shillings for the quarter of wheat, and for that of other grain
in proportion. In years of scarcity, therefore, the corn merchant
buys a great part of his corn for the ordinary price, and sells
it for a much higher. That this extraordinary profit, however, is
no more than sufficient to put his trade upon a fair level with
other trades, and to compensate the many losses which he sustains
upon other occasions, both from the perishable nature of the
commodity itself, and from the frequent and unforeseen
fluctuations of its price, seems evident enough, from this single
circumstance, that great fortunes are as seldom made in this as
in any other trade. The popular odium, however, which attends it
in years of scarcity, the only years in which it can be very
profitable, renders people of character and fortune averse to
enter into it. It is abandoned to an inferior set of dealers; and
millers, bakers, mealmen, and meal factors, together with a
number of wretched hucksters, are almost the only middle people
that, in the home market, come between the grower and the
consumer.
     The ancient policy of Europe, instead of discountenancing
this popular odium against a trade so beneficial to the public,
seems, on the contrary, to have authorized and encouraged it.
     By the 5th and 6th of Edward VI, c. 14, it was enacted that
whoever should buy any corn or grain with intent to sell it
again, should be reputed an unlawful engrosser, and should, for
the first fault, suffer two months' imprisonment, and forfeit the
value of the corn; for the second, suffer six months'
imprisonment, and forfeit double the value; and for the third, be
set in the pillory, suffer imprisonment during the king's
pleasure, and forfeit all his goods and chattels. The ancient
policy of most other parts of Europe was no better than that of
England.
     Our ancestors seem to have imagined that the people would
buy their corn cheaper of the farmer than of the corn merchant,
who, they were afraid, would require, over and above the price
which he paid to the farmer, an exorbitant profit to himself.
They endeavoured, therefore, to annihilate his trade altogether.
They even endeavoured to hinder as much as possible any middle
man of any kind from coming in between the grower and the
consumer; and this was the meaning of the many restraints which
they imposed upon the trade of those whom they called kidders or
carriers of corn, a trade which nobody was allowed to exercise
without a licence ascertaining his qualifications as a man of
probity and fair dealing. The authority of three justices of the
peace was, by the statute of Edward VI, necessary in order to
grant this licence. But even this restraint was afterwards
thought insufficient, and by a statute of Elizabeth the privilege
of granting it was confined to the quarter-sessions.
     The ancient policy of Europe endeavoured in this manner to
regulate agriculture, the great trade of the country, by maxims
quite different from those which it established with regard to
manufactures, the great trade of the towns. By leaving the farmer
no other customers but either the consumers or their immediate
factors, the kidders and carriers of corn, it endeavoured to
force him to exercise the trade, not only of a farmer, but of a
corn merchant or corn retailer. On the contrary, it in many cases
prohibited the manufacturer from exercising the trade of a
shopkeeper, or from selling his own goods by retail. It meant by
the one law to promote the general interest of the country, or to
render corn cheap, without, perhaps, its being well understood
how this was to be done. By the other it meant to promote that of
a particular order of men, the shopkeepers, who would be so much
undersold by the manufacturer, it was supposed, that their trade
would be ruined if he was allowed to retail at all.
     The manufacturer, however, though he had been allowed to
keep a shop, and to sell his own goods by retail, could not have
undersold the common shopkeeper. Whatever part of his capital he
might have placed in his shop, he must have withdrawn it from his
manufacture. In order to carry on his business on a level with
that of other people, as he must have had the profit of a
manufacturer on the one part, so he must have had that of a
shopkeeper upon the other. Let us suppose, for example, that in
the particular town where he lived, ten per cent was the ordinary
profit both of manufacturing and shopkeeping stock; he must in
this case have charged upon every piece of his own goods which he
sold in his shop, a profit of twenty per cent. When he carried
them from his workhouse to his shop, he must have valued them at
the price for which he could have sold them to a dealer or
shopkeeper, who would have bought them by wholesale. If he valued
them lower, he lost a part of the profit of his manufacturing
capital. When again he sold them from his shop, unless he got the
same price at which a shopkeeper would have sold them, he lost a
part of the profit of his shopkeeping capital. Though he might
appear, therefore, to make a double profit upon the same piece of
goods, yet as these goods made successively a part of two
distinct capitals, he made but a single profit upon the whole
capital employed about them; and if he made less than his profit,
he was a loser, or did not employ his whole capital with the same
advantage as the greater part of his neighbours.
     What the manufacturer was prohibited to do, the farmer was
in some measure enjoined to do; to divide his capital between two
different employments; to keep one part of it in his granaries
and stack yard, for supplying the occasional demands of the
market; and to employ the other in the cultivation of his land.
But as he could not afford to employ the latter for less than the
ordinary profits of farming stock, so he could as little afford
to employ the former for less than the ordinary profits of
mercantile stock. Whether the stock which really carried on the
business of the corn merchant belonged to the person who was
called a farmer, or to the person who was called a corn merchant,
an equal profit was in both cases requisite in order to indemnify
its owner for employing it in this manner; in order to put his
business upon a level with other trades, and in order to hinder
him from having an interest to change it as soon as possible for
some other. The farmer, therefore, who was thus forced to
exercise the trade of a corn merchant, could not afford to sell
his corn cheaper than any other corn merchant would have been
obliged to do in the case of a free competition.
     The dealer who can employ his whole stock in one single
branch of business has an advantage of the same kind with the
workman who can employ his whole labour in one single operation.
As the latter acquires a dexterity which enables him, with the
same two hands, to perform a much greater quantity of work; so
the former acquires so easy and ready a method of transacting his
business, of buying and disposing of his goods, that with the
same capital he can transact a much greater quantity of business.
As the one can commonly afford his work a good deal cheaper, so
the other can commonly afford his goods somewhat cheaper than if
his stock and attention were both employed about a greater
variety of objects. The greater part of manufacturers could not
afford to retail their own goods so cheap as a vigilant and
active shopkeeper, whose sole business it was to buy them at
wholesale and to retail them again. The greater part of farmers
could still less afford to retail their own corn, to supply the
inhabitants of a town, at perhaps four or five miles distance
from the greater part of them, so cheap as a vigilant and active
corn merchant, whose sole business it was to purchase corn by
wholesale, to collect it into a great magazine, and to retail it
again.
     The law which prohibited the manufacturer from exercising
the trade of a shopkeeper endeavoured to force this division in
the employment of stock to go on faster than it might otherwise
have done. The law which obliged the farmer to exercise the trade
of a corn merchant endeavoured to hinder it from going on so
fast. Both laws were evident violations of natural liberty, and
therefore unjust; and they were both, too, as impolitic as they
were unjust. It is the interest of every society that things of
this kind should never either be forced or obstructed. The man
who employs either his labour or his stock in a greater variety
of ways than his situation renders necessary can never hurt his
neighbour by underselling him. He may hurt himself, and he
generally does so. Jack of all trades will never be rich, says
the proverb. But the law ought always to trust people with the
care of their own interest, as in their local situations they
must generally be able to judge better of it than the legislator
can do. The law, however, which obliged the farmer to exercise
the trade of a corn merchant was by far the most pernicious of
the two.
     It obstructed not only that division in the employment of
stock which is so advantageous to every society, but it
obstructed likewise the improvement and cultivation of the land.
By obliging the farmer to carry on two trades instead of one, it
forced him to divide his capital into two parts, of which one
only could be employed in cultivation. But if he had been at
liberty to sell his whole crop to a corn merchant as fast as he
could thresh it out, his whole capital might have returned
immediately to the land, and have been employed in buying more
cattle, and hiring more servants, in order to improve and
cultivate it better. But by being obliged to sell his corn by
retail, he was obliged to keep a great part of his capital in his
granaries and stack yard through the year, and could not,
therefore, cultivate so well as with the same capital he might
otherwise have done. This law, therefore, necessarily obstructed
the improvement of the land, and, instead of tending to render
corn cheaper, must have tended to render it scarcer, and
therefore dearer, than it would otherwise have been.
     After the business of the farmer, that of the corn merchant
is in reality the trade which, if properly protected and
encouraged, would contribute the most to the raising of corn. It
would support the trade of the farmer in the same manner as the
trade of the wholesale dealer supports that of the manufacturer.
     The wholesale dealer, by affording a ready market to the
manufacturer, by taking his goods off his hand as fast as he can
make their price to him before he has made them, enables him to
keep his whole capital, and sometimes even more than his whole
capital, constantly employed in manufacturing, and consequently
to manufacture a much greater quantity of goods than if he was
obliged to dispose of them himself to the immediate consumers, or
even to the retailers. As the capital of the wholesale merchant,
too, is generally sufficient to replace that of many
manufacturers, this intercourse between him and them interests
the owner of a large capital to support the owners of a great
number of small ones, and to assist them in those losses and
misfortunes which might otherwise prove ruinous to them.
     An intercourse of the same kind universally established
between the farmers and the corn merchants would be attended with
effects equally beneficial to the farmers. They would be enabled
to keep their whole capitals, and even more than their whole
capitals, constantly employed in cultivation. In case of any of
those accidents, to which no trade is more liable than theirs,
they would find in their ordinary customer, the wealthy corn
merchant, a person who had both an interest to support them, and
the ability to do it, and they would not, as at present, be
entirely dependent upon the forbearance of their landlord, or the
mercy of his steward. Were it possible, as perhaps it is not, to
establish this intercourse universally, and all at once, were it
possible to turn all at once the whole farming stock of the
kingdom to its proper business, the cultivation of land,
withdrawing it from every other employment into which any part of
it may be at present diverted, and were it possible, in order to
support and assist upon occasion the operations of this great
stock, to provide all at once another stock almost equally great,
it is not perhaps very easy to imagine how great, how extensive,
and how sudden would be the improvement which this change of
circumstances would alone produce upon the whole face of the
country.
     The statute of Edward VI, therefore, by prohibiting as much
as possible any middle man from coming between the grower and the
consumer, endeavoured to annihilate a trade, of which the free
exercise is not only the best palliative of the inconveniences of
a dearth but the best preventative of that calamity: after the
trade of the farmer, no trade contributing so much to the growing
of corn as that of the corn merchant.
     The rigour of this law was afterwards softened by several
subsequent statutes, which successively permitted the engrossing
of corn when the price of wheat should not exceed twenty,
twenty-four, thirty-two, and forty shillings the quarter. At
last, by the 15th of Charles II, c. 7, the engrossing or buying
of corn in order to sell it again, as long as the price of wheat
did not exceed forty-eight shillings the quarter, and that of
other grain in proportion, was declared lawful to all persons not
being forestallers, that is, not selling again in the same market
within three months. All the freedom which the trade of the
inland corn dealer has ever yet enjoyed was bestowed upon it by
this statute. The statute of the 12th of the present king, which
repeals almost all the other ancient laws against engrossers and
forestallers, does not repeal the restrictions of this particular
statute, which therefore still continue in force.
     This statute, however, authorizes in some measure two very
absurd popular prejudices.
     First, it supposes that when the price of wheat has risen so
high as forty-eight shillings the quarter, and that of other
grains in proportion, corn is likely to be so engrossed as to
hurt the people. But from what has been already said, it seems
evident enough that corn can at no price be so engrossed by the
inland dealers as to hurt the people: and forty-eight shillings
the quarter, besides, though it may be considered as a very high
price, yet in years of scarcity it is a price which frequently
takes place immediately after harvest, when scarce any part of
the new crop can be sold off, and when it is impossible even for
ignorance to suppose that any part of it can be so engrossed as
to hurt the people.
     Secondly, it supposes that there is a certain price at which
corn is likely to be forestalled, that is, bought up in order to
be sold again soon after in the same market, so as to hurt the
people. But if a merchant ever buys up corn, either going to a
particular market or in a particular market, in order to sell it
again soon after in the same market, it must be because he judges
that the market cannot be so liberally supplied through the whole
season as upon that particular occasion, and that the price,
therefore, must soon rise. If he judges wrong in this, and if the
price does not rise, he not only loses the whole profit of the
stock which he employs in this manner, but a part of the stock
itself, by the expense and loss which necessarily attend the
storing and keeping of corn. He hurts himself, therefore, much
more essentially than he can hurt even the particular people whom
he may hinder from supplying themselves upon that particular
market day, because they may afterwards supply themselves just as
cheap upon any other market day. If he judges right, instead of
hurting the great body of the people, he renders them a most
important service. By making them feel the inconveniencies of a
dearth somewhat earlier than they otherwise might do, he prevents
their feeling them afterwards so severely as they certainly would
do, if the cheapness of price encouraged them to consume faster
than suited the real scarcity of the season. When the scarcity is
real, the best thing that can be done for the people is to divide
the inconveniencies of it as equally as possible through all the
different months, and weeks, and days of the year. The interest
of the corn merchant makes him study to do this as exactly as he
can: and as no other person can have either the same interest, or
the same knowledge, or the same abilities to do it so exactly as
he, this most important operation of commerce ought to be trusted
entirely to him; or, in other words, the corn trade, so far at
least as concerns the supply of the home market, ought to be left
perfectly free.
     The popular fear of engrossing and forestalling may be
compared to the popular terrors and suspicions of witchcraft. The
unfortunate wretches accused of this latter crime were not more
innocent of the misfortunes imputed to them than those who have
been accused of the former. The law which put an end to all
prosecutions against witchcraft, which put it out of any man's
power to gratify his own malice by accusing his neighbour of that
imaginary crime, seems effectually to have put an end to those
fears and suspicions by taking away the great cause which
encouraged and supported them. The law which should restore
entire freedom to the inland trade of corn would probably prove
as effectual to put an end to the popular fears of engrossing and
forestalling.
     The 15th of Charles II, c. 7, however, with all its
imperfections, has perhaps contributed more both to the plentiful
supply of the home market, and to the increase of tillage, than
any other law in the statute book. It is from this law that the
inland corn trade has derived all the liberty and protection
which it has ever yet enjoyed; and both the supply of the home
market, and the interest of tillage, are much more effectually
promoted by the inland than either by the importation or
exportation trade.
     The proportion of the average quantity of all sorts of grain
imported into Great Britain to that of all sorts of grain
consumed, it has been computed by the author of the tracts upon
the corn trade, does not exceed that of one to five hundred and
seventy. For supplying the home market, therefore, the importance
of the inland trade must be to that of the importation trade as
five hundred and seventy to one.
     The average quantity of all sorts of grain exported from
Great Britain does not, according to the same author, exceed the
one-and-thirtieth part of the annual produce. For the
encouragement of tillage, therefore, by providing a market for
the home produce, the importance of the inland trade must be to
that of the exportation.
     I have no great faith in political arithmetic, computations.
I mention them only in order to show of how much less
consequence, in the opinion of the most judicious and experienced
persons, the foreign trade of corn is than the home trade. The
great cheapness of corn in the years immediately preceding the
establishment of the bounty may perhaps, with reason, be ascribed
in some measure to the operation of this statute of Charles II,
which had been enacted about five-and-twenty years before, and
which had therefore full time to produce its effect.
     A very few words will sufficiently explain all that I have
to say concerning the other three branches of the corn trade.
     II. The trade of the merchant importer of foreign corn for
home consumption evidently contributes to the immediate supply of
the home market, and must so far be immediately beneficial to the
great body of the people. It tends, indeed, to lower somewhat the
average money price of corn, but not to diminish its real value,
or the quantity of labour which it is capable of maintaining. If
importation was at all times free, our farmers and country
gentlemen would, probably, one year with another, get less money
for their corn than they do at present, when importation is at
most times in effect prohibited; but the money which they got
would be of more value, would buy more goods of all other kinds,
and would employ more labour. Their real wealth, their real
revenue, therefore, would be the same as at present, though it
might be expressed by a smaller quantity of silver; and they
would neither be disabled nor discouraged from cultivating corn
as much as they do at present. On the contrary, as the rise in
the real value of silver, in consequence of lowering the money
price of corn, lowers somewhat the money price of all other
commodities, it gives the industry of the country, where it takes
place, some advantage in all foreign markets, and thereby tends
to encourage and increase that industry. But the extent of the
home market for corn must be in proportion to the general
industry of the country where it grows, or to the number of those
who produce something else, and therefore have something else, or
what comes to the same thing, the price of something else, to
give in exchange for corn. But in every country the home market,
as it is the nearest and most convenient, so is it likewise the
greatest and most important market for corn. That rise in the
real value of silver, therefore, which is the effect of lowering
the average money price of corn, tends to enlarge the greatest
and most important market for corn, and thereby to encourage,
instead of discouraging, its growth.
     By the 22nd of Charles II, c. 13, the importation of wheat,
whenever the price in the home market did not exceed fifty-three
shillings and fourpence the quarter, was subjected to a duty of
sixteen shillings the quarter, and to a duty of eight shillings
whenever the price did not exceed four pounds. The former of
these two prices has, for more than a century past, taken place
only in times of very great scarcity; and the latter has, so far
as I know, not taken place at all. Yet, till wheat had risen
above this latter price, it was by this statute subjected to a
very high duty; and, tin it had risen above the former, to a duty
which amounted to a prohibition. The importation of other sorts
of grain was restrained at rates, and by duties, in proportion to
the value of the grain, almost equally high.* Subsequent laws
still further increased those duties.    

* Before the 13th of the present king, the following were the duties 
payable upon the importation of the different sorts of grain:- 
    Grain            Duties                     Duties    Duties
Beans to 28s. per qr. 19s. 10d. after till 40s.  16s.  8d.  then 12d.   
Barley to 28s.        19s. 10d.            32s.  16s.           12d.
     Malt is prohibited by the annual Malt-tax Bill.   
Oats to  16s.           5s. 10d. after                       9 1/2d.  
Pease to 40s.          16s. 10d. after                       9 3/4d.   
Rye to 36s.           19s. 10d. till       40s.  16s. 8d.  then 12d.   
Wheat to 44s.         21s. 10d. till   53s. 4d.  17s.      then  8s.
     till 4 l. and after that about 1s. 4d.
Buckwheat to 32s. per qr. to pay 16s.

    These different duties were imposed, partly by the 92nd of Charles 
II, in place of the Old Subsidy, partly by the New Subsidy, by the One-third
and Two-thirds Subsidy, and by the Subsidy, 1747. 


     The distress which, in years of scarcity, the strict
execution of those laws might have brought upon the people, would
probably have been very great. But, upon such occasions, its
execution was generally suspended by temporary statutes, which
permitted, for a limited time, the importation of foreign corn.
The necessity of these temporary statutes sufficiently
demonstrates the impropriety of this general one.
     These restraints upon importation, though prior to the
establishment of the bounty, were dictated by the same spirit, by
the same principles, which afterwards enacted that regulation.
How hurtful soever in themselves, these or some other restraints
upon importation became necessary in consequence of that
regulation. If, when wheat was either below forty-eight shillings
the quarter, or not much above it, foreign corn could have been
imported either duty free, or upon paying only a small duty, it
might have been exported again, with the benefit of the bounty,
to the great loss of the public revenue, and to the entire
perversion of the institution, of which the object was to extend
the market for the home growth, not that for the growth of
foreign countries.
     III. The trade of the merchant exporter of corn for foreign
consumption certainly does not contribute directly to the
plentiful supply of the home market. It does so, however,
indirectly. From whatever source this supply may be usually
drawn, whether from home growth or from foreign importation,
unless more corn is either usually grown, or usually imported
into the country, than what is usually consumed in it, the supply
of the home market can never be very plentiful. But unless the
surplus can in all ordinary cases be exported, the growers will
be careful never to grow more, and the importers never to import
more, than what the bare consumption of the home market requires.
That market will very seldom be overstocked; but it will
generally be understocked, the people whose business it is to
supply it being generally afraid lest their goods should be left
upon their hands. The prohibition of exportation limits the
improvement and cultivation of the country to what the supply of
its own inhabitants requires. The freedom of exportation enables
it to extend cultivation for the supply of foreign nations.
     By the 12th of Charles II, c. 4, the exportation of corn was
permitted whenever the price of wheat did not exceed forty
shillings the quarter, and that of other grain in proportion. By
the 15th of the same prince, this liberty was extended till the
price of wheat exceeded forty-eight shillings the quarter; and by
the 22nd, to all higher prices. A poundage, indeed, was to be
paid to the king upon such exportation. But all grain was rated
so low in the book of rates that this poundage amounted only upon
wheat to a shilling, upon oats to fourpence, and upon all other
grain to sixpence the quarter. By the 1st of William and Mary,
the act which established the bounty, this small duty was
virtually taken off whenever the price of wheat did not exceed,
forty-eight shillings the quarter; and by the 11th and l2th of
William III, c. 20, it was expressly taken off at all higher
prices.
     The trade of the merchant exporter was, in this manner, not
only encouraged by a bounty, but rendered much more free than
that of the inland dealer. By the last of these statutes, corn
could be engrossed at any price for exportation, but it could not
be engrossed for inland sale except when the price did not exceed
forty-eight shillings the quarter. The interest of the inland
dealer, however, it has already been shown, can never be opposite
to that of the great body of the people. That of the merchant
exporter may, and in fact sometimes is. If, while his own country
labours under a dearth, a neighbouring country should be
afflicted with a famine, it might be his interest to carry corn
to the latter country in such quantities as might very much
aggravate the calamities of the dearth. The plentiful supply of
the home market was not the direct object of those statutes; but,
under the pretence of encouraging agriculture, to raise the money
price of corn as high as possible, and thereby to occasion, as
much as possible, a constant dearth in the home market. By the
discouragement of importation, the supply of that market, even in
times of great scarcity, was confined to the home growth; and by
the encouragement of exportation, when the price was so high as
forty-eight shillings the quarter, that market was not, even in
times of considerable scarcity, allowed to enjoy the whole of
that growth. The temporary laws, prohibiting for a limited time
the exportation of corn, and taking off for a limited time the
duties upon its importation, expedients to which Great Britain
has been obliged so frequently to have recourse, sufficiently
demonstrate the impropriety of her general system. Had that
system been good, she would not so frequently have been reduced
to the necessity of departing from it.
     Were all nations to follow the liberal system of free
exportation and free importation, the different states into which
a great continent was divided would so far resemble the different
provinces of a great empire. As among the different provinces of
a great empire the freedom of the inland trade appears, both from
reason and experience, not only the best palliative of a dearth,
but the most effectual preventative of a famine; so would the
freedom of the exportation and importation trade be among the
different states into which a great continent was divided. The
larger the continent, the easier the communication through all
the different parts of it, both by land and by water, the less
would any one particular part of it ever be exposed to either of
these calamities, the scarcity of any one country being more
likely to be relieved by the plenty of some other. But very few
countries have entirely adopted this liberal system. The freedom
of the corn trade is almost everywhere more or less restrained,
and, in many countries, is confined by such absurd regulations as
frequently aggravate the unavoidable misfortune of a dearth into
the dreadful calamity of a famine. The demand of such countries
for corn may frequently become so great and so urgent that a
small state in their neighbourhood, which happened at the same
time to be labouring under some degree of dearth, could not
venture to supply them without exposing itself to the like
dreadful calamity. The very bad policy of one country may thus
render it in some measure dangerous and imprudent to establish
what would otherwise be the best policy in another. The unlimited
freedom of exportation, however, would be much less dangerous in
great states, in which the growth being much greater, the supply
could seldom be much affected by any quantity of corn that was
likely to be exported. In a Swiss canton, or in some of the
little states of Italy, it may perhaps sometimes be necessary to
restrain the exportation of corn. In such great countries as
France or England it scarce ever can. To hinder, besides, the
farmer from sending his goods at all times to the best market is
evidently to sacrifice the ordinary laws of justice to an idea of
public utility, to a sort of reasons of state; an act of
legislative authority which ought to be exercised only, which can
be pardoned only in cases of the most urgent necessity. The price
at which the exportation of corn is prohibited, if it is ever to
be prohibited, ought always to be a very high price.
     The laws concerning corn may everywhere be compared to the
laws concerning religion. The people feel themselves so much
interested in what relates either of their subsistence in this
life, or to their happiness in a life to come, that government
must yield to their prejudices, and, in order to preserve the
public tranquillity, establish that system which they approve of.
It is upon this account, perhaps, that we so seldom find a
reasonable system established with regard to either of those two
capital objects.
     IV. The trade of the merchant carrier, or of the importer of
foreign corn in order to export it again, contributes to the
plentiful supply of the home market. It is not indeed the direct
purpose of his trade to sell his corn there. But he will
generally be willing to do so, and even for a good deal less
money than he might expect in a foreign market; because he saves
in this manner the expense of loading and unloading, of freight
and insurance. The inhabitants of the country which, by means of
the carrying trade, becomes the magazine and storehouse for the
supply of other countries can very seldom be in want themselves.
Though the carrying trade might thus contribute to reduce the
average money price of corn in the home market, it would not
thereby lower its real value. It would only raise somewhat the
real value of silver.
     The carrying trade was in effect prohibited in Great
Britain, upon all ordinary occasions, by the high duties upon the
importation of foreign corn, of the greater part of which there
was no drawback; and upon extraordinary occasions, when a
scarcity made it necessary to suspend those duties by temporary
statutes, exportation was always prohibited. By this system of
laws, therefore, the carrying trade was in effect prohibited upon
all occasions.
     That system of laws, therefore, which is connected with the
establishment of the bounty, seems to deserve no part of the
praise which has been bestowed upon it. The improvement and
prosperity of Great Britain, which has been so often ascribed to
those laws, may very easily be accounted for by other causes.
That security which the laws in Great Britain give to every man
that he shall enjoy the fruits of his own labour is alone
sufficient to make any country flourish, notwithstanding these
and twenty other absurd regulations of commerce; and this
security was perfected by the revolution much about the same time
that the bounty was established. The natural effort of every
individual to better his own condition, when suffered to exert
itself with freedom and security is so powerful a principle that
it is alone, and without any assistance, not only capable of
carrying on the society to wealth and prosperity, but of
surmounting a hundred impertinent obstructions with which the
folly of human laws too often incumbers its operations; though
the effect of these obstructions is always more or less either to
encroach upon its freedom, or to diminish its security. In Great
Britain industry is perfectly secure; and though it is far from
being perfectly free, it is as free or freer than in any other
part of Europe.
     Though the period of the greatest prosperity and improvement
of Great Britain has been posterior to that system of laws which
is connected with the bounty, we must not upon that account
impute it to those laws. It has been posterior likewise to the
national debt. But the national debt has most assuredly not been
the cause of it.
     Though the system of laws which is connected with the bounty
has exactly the same tendency of tendency with the police of
Spain and Portugal, to lower somewhat the value of the precious
metals in the country where it takes place, yet Great Britain is
certainly one of the richest countries in Europe, while Spain and
Portugal are perhaps among the most beggarly. This difference of
situation, however, may easily be accounted for from two
different causes. First, the tax of Spain, the prohibition in
Portugal of exporting gold and silver, and the vigilant police
which watches over the execution of those laws, must, in two very
poor countries, which between them import annually upwards of six
millions sterling, operate not only more directly but much more
forcibly in reducing the value of those metals there than the
corn laws can do in Great Britain. And, secondly, this bad policy
is not in those countries counterbalanced by the general liberty
and security of the people. Industry is there neither free nor
secure, and the civil and ecclesiastical governments of both
Spain and Portugal are such as would alone be sufficient to
perpetuate their present state of poverty, even though their
regulations of commerce were as wise as the greater part of them
are absurd and foolish.
     The 13th of the present king, c. 43, seems to have
established a new system with regard to the corn laws in many
respects better than the ancient one, but in one or two respects
perhaps not quite so good.
     By this statute the high duties upon importations for home
consumption are taken off so soon as the price of middling wheat
rises to forty-eight shillings the quarter; that of middling rye,
pease or beans, to thirty-two shillings; that of barley to
twenty-four shillings; and that of oats to sixteen shillings; and
instead of them a small duty is imposed of only sixpence upon the
quarter of wheat, and upon that of other grain in proportion.
With regard to all these different sorts of grain, but
particularly with regard to wheat, the home market is thus opened
to foreign supplies at prices considerably lower than before.
     By the same statute the old bounty of five shillings upon
the exportation of wheat ceases so soon as the price rises to
forty-four shillings the quarter, instead of forty-eight, the
price at which it ceased before; that of two shillings and
sixpence upon the exportation of barley ceases so soon as the
price rises to twenty-two shillings, instead of twenty-four, the
price at which it ceased before; that of two shillings and
sixpence upon the exportation of oatmeal ceases so soon as the
price rises to fourteen shillings, instead of fifteen, the price
at which it ceased before. The bounty upon rye is reduced from
three shillings and sixpence to three shillings, and it ceases so
soon as the price rises to twenty-eight shillings instead of
thirty-two, the price at which it ceased before. If bounties are
as improper as I have endeavoured to prove them to be, the sooner
they cease, and the lower they are, so much the better.
     The same statute permits, at the lowest prices, the
importation of corn, in order to be exported again duty free,
provided it is in the meantime lodged in a warehouse under the
joint locks of the king and the importer. This liberty, indeed,
extends to no more than twenty-five of the different ports of
Great Britain. They are, however, the principal ones, and there
may not, perhaps, be warehouses proper for this purpose in the
greater part of the others.
     So far this law seems evidently an improvement upon the
ancient system.
     But by the same law a bounty of two shillings the quarter is
given for the exportation of oats whenever the price does not
exceed fourteen shillings. No bounty had ever been given before
for the exportation of this grain, no more than for that of pease
or beans.
     By the same law, too, the exportation of wheat is prohibited
so soon as the price rises to forty-four shillings the quarter;
that of rye so soon as it rises to twenty-eight shillings; that
of barley so soon as it rises to twenty-two shillings; and that
of oats so soon as they rise to fourteen shillings. Those several
prices seem all of them a good deal too low, and there seems to
be an impropriety, besides, in prohibiting exportation altogether
at those precise prices at which that bounty, which was given in
order to force it, is withdrawn. The bounty ought certainly
either to have been withdrawn at a much lower price, or
exportation ought to have been allowed at a much higher.
     So far, therefore, this law seems to be inferior to the
ancient system. With all its imperfections, however, we may
perhaps say of it what was said of the laws of Solon, that,
though not the best in itself, it is the best which the
interests, prejudices, and temper of the times would admit of. It
may perhaps in due time prepare the way for a better.

                           CHAPTER VI

                    Of Treaties of Commerce 

     WHEN a nation binds itself by treaty either to permit the
entry of certain goods from one foreign country which it
prohibits from all others, or to exempt the goods of one country
from duties to which it subjects those of all others, the
country, or at least the merchants and manufacturers of the
country, whose commerce is so favoured, must necessarily derive
great advantage from the treaty. Those merchants and
manufacturers enjoy a sort of monopoly in the country which is so
indulgent to them. That country becomes a market both more
extensive and more advantageous for their goods: more extensive,
because the goods of other nations being either excluded or
subjected to heavier duties, it takes off a greater quantity of
theirs: more advantageous, because the merchants of the favoured
country, enjoying a sort of monopoly there, will often sell their
goods for a better price than if exposed to the free competition
of all other nations.
     Such treaties, however, though they may be advantageous to
the merchants and manufacturers of the favoured, are necessarily
disadvantageous to those of the favouring country. A monopoly is
thus granted against them to a foreign nation; and they must
frequently buy the foreign goods they have occasion for dearer
than if the free competition of other nations was admitted. That
part of its own produce with which such a nation purchases
foreign goods must consequently be sold cheaper, because when two
things are exchanged for one another, the cheapness of the one is
a necessary consequence, or rather the same thing with the
dearness of the other. The exchangeable value of its annual
produce, therefore, is likely to be diminished by every such
treaty. This diminution, however, can scarce amount to any
positive loss, but only to a lessening of the gain which it might
otherwise make. Though it sells its goods cheaper than it
otherwise might do, it will not probably sell them for less than
they cost; nor, as in the case of bounties, for a price which
will not replace the capital employed in bringing them to market,
together with the ordinary profits of stock. The trade could not
go on long if it did. Even the favouring country, therefore, may
still gain by the trade, though less than if there was a free
competition.
     Some treaties of commerce, however, have been supposed
advantageous upon principles very different from these; and a
commercial country has sometimes granted a monopoly of this kind
against itself to certain goods of a foreign nation, because it
expected that in the whole commerce between them, it would
annually sell more than it would buy, and that a balance in gold
and silver would be annually returned to it. It is upon this
principle that the treaty of commerce between England and
Portugal, concluded in 1703 by Mr. Methuen, has been so much
commended. The following is a literal translation of that treaty,
which consists of three articles only. 
                            ART. I. 
     His sacred royal majesty of Portugal promises, both in his
own name, and that of his successors, to admit, for ever
hereafter, into Portugal, the woollen cloths, and the rest of the
woollen manufactures of the British, as was accustomed, till they
were prohibited by the law; nevertheless upon this condition: 
                           ART. II. 
     That is to say, that her sacred royal majesty of Great
Britain shall, in her own name, and that of her successors, be
obliged, for ever hereafter, to admit the wines of the growth of
Portugal into Britain; so that at no time, whether there shall be
peace or war between the kingdoms of Britain and France, anything
more shall be demanded for these wines by the name of custom or
duty, or by whatsoever other title, directly or indirectly,
whether they shall be imported into Great Britain in or
hogsheads, or other casks, than what shall be demanded for the
like quantity or measure of French wine, deducting or abating a
third part of the custom or duty. But if at any time this
deduction or abatement of customs, which is to be made as
aforesaid, shall in any manner be attempted and prejudiced, it
shall be just and lawful for his sacred royal majesty of
Portugal, again to prohibit the woollen cloths, and the rest of
the British woollen manufactures. 
                           ART. III. 
     The most excellent lords the plenipotentiaries promise and
take upon themselves, that their above named masters shall ratify
this treaty; and within the space of two months the ratifications
shall be exchanged.
     By this treaty the crown of Portugal becomes bound to admit
the English woollens upon the same footing as before the
prohibition; that is, not to raise the duties which had been paid
before that time. But it does not become bound to admit them upon
any better terms than those of any other nation, of France or
Holland for example. The crown of Great Britain, on the contrary,
becomes bound to admit the wines of Portugal upon paying only
two-thirds of the duty which is paid for those of France, the
wines most likely to come into competition with them. So far this
treaty, therefore, is evidently advantageous to Portugal, and
disadvantageous to Great Britain.
     It has been celebrated, however, as a masterpiece of the
commercial policy of England. Portugal receives annually from the
Brazils a greater quantity of gold than can be employed in its
domestic commerce, whether in the shape of coin or of plate. The
surplus is too valuable to be allowed to lie idle and locked up
in coffers, and as it can find no advantageous market at home, it
must, notwithstanding any prohibition, be sent abroad, and
exchanged for something for which there is a more advantageous
market at home. A large share of it comes annually to England, in
return either for English goods, or for those of other European
nations that receive their returns through England. Mr. Baretti
was informed that the weekly packet-boat from Lisbon brings, one
week with another, more than fifty thousand pounds in gold to
England. The sum had probably been exaggerated. It would amount
to more than two millions six hundred thousand pounds a year,
which is more than the Brazils are supposed to afford.
     Our merchants were some years ago out of humour with the
crown of Portugal. Some privileges which had been granted them,
not by treaty, but by the free grace of that crown, at the
solicitation indeed, it is probable, and in return for much
greater favours, defence and protection, from the crown of Great
Britain had been either infringed or revoked. The people,
therefore, usually most interested in celebrating the Portugal
trade were then rather disposed to represent it as less
advantageous than it had commonly been imagined. The far greater
part, almost the whole, they pretended, of this annual
importation of gold, was not on account of Great Britain, but of
other European nations; the fruits and wines of Portugal annually
imported into Great Britain nearly compensating the value of the
British goods sent thither.
     Let us suppose, however, that the whole was on account of
Great Britain, and that it amounted to a still greater sum than
Mr. Baretti seems to imagine; this trade would not, upon that
account, be more advantageous than any other in which, for the
same value sent out, we received an equal value of consumable
goods in return.
     It is but a very small part of this importation which, it
can be supposed, is employed as an annual addition either to the
plate or to the coin of the kingdom. The rest must all be sent
abroad and exchanged for consumable goods of some kind or other.
But if those consumable goods were purchased directly with the
produce of English industry, it would be more for the advantage
of England than first to purchase with that produce the gold of
Portugal, and afterwards to purchase with that gold those
consumable goods. A direct foreign trade of consumption is always
more advantageous than a round-about one; and to bring the same
value of foreign goods to the home market, requires a much
smaller capital in the one way than in the other. If a smaller
share of its industry, therefore, had been employed in producing
goods fit for the Portugal market, and a greater in producing
those fit for the other markets, where those consumable goods for
which there is a demand in Great Britain are to be had, it would
have been more for the advantage of England. To procure both the
gold, which it wants for its own use, and the consumable goods,
would, in this way, employ a much smaller capital than at
present. There would be a spare capital, therefore, to be
employed for other purposes, in exciting an additional quantity
of industry, and in raising a greater annual produce.
     Though Britain were entirely excluded from the Portugal
trade, it could find very little difficulty in procuring all the
annual supplies of gold which it wants, either for the purposes
of plate, or of coin, or of foreign trade. Gold, like every other
commodity, is always somewhere or another to be got for its value
by those who have that value to give for it. The annual surplus
of gold in Portugal, besides, would still be sent abroad, and
though not carried away by Great Britain, would be carried away
by some other nation, which would be glad to sell it again for
its price, in the same manner as Great Britain does at present.
In buying gold of Portugal, indeed, we buy it at the first hand;
whereas, in buying it of any other nation, except Spain, we
should buy it at the second, and might pay somewhat dearer. This
difference, however, would surely be too insignificant to deserve
the public attention.
     Almost all our gold, it is said, comes from Portugal. With
other nations the balance of trade is either against us, or not
much in our favour. But we should remember that the more gold we
import from one country, the less we must necessarily import from
all others. The effectual demand for gold, like that for every
other commodity, is in every country limited to a certain
quantity. If nine-tenths of this quantity are imported from one
country, there remains a tenth only to be imported from all
others. The more gold besides that is annually imported from some
particular countries, over and above what is requisite for plate
and for coin, the more must necessarily be exported to some
others; and the more that most insignificant object of modern
policy, the balance of trade, appears to be in our favour with
some particular countries, the more it must necessarily appear to
be against us with many others.
     It was upon this silly notion, however, that England could
not subsist without the Portugal trade, that, towards the end of
the late war, France and Spain, without pretending either offence
or provocation, required the King of Portugal to exclude all
British ships from his ports, and for the security of this
exclusion, to receive into them French or Spanish garrisons. Had
the king of Portugal submitted to those ignominious terms which
his brother-in-law the king of Spain proposed to him, Britain
would have been freed from a much greater inconveniency than the
loss of the Portugal trade, the burden of supporting a very weak
ally, so unprovided of everything for his own defence that the
whole power of England, had it been directed to that single
purpose, could scarce perhaps have defended him for another
campaign. The loss of the Portugal trade would, no doubt, have
occasioned a considerable embarrassment to the merchants at that
time engaged in it, who might not, perhaps, have found out, for a
year or two, any other equally advantageous method of employing
their capitals; and in this would probably have consisted all the
inconveniency which England could have suffered from this notable
piece of commercial policy.
     The great annual importation of gold and silver is neither
for the purpose of plate nor of coin, but of foreign trade. A
round-about foreign trade of consumption can be carried on more
advantageously by means of these metals than of almost any other
goods. As they are the universal instruments of commerce, they
are more readily received in return for all commodities than any
other goods; and on account of their small bulk and great value,
it costs less to transport them backward and forward from one
place to another than almost any other sort of merchandise, and
they lose less of their value by being so transported. Of all the
commodities, therefore, which are bought in one foreign country,
for no other purpose but to be sold or exchanged again for some
other goods in another, there are none so convenient as gold and
silver. In facilitating all the different round-about foreign
trades of consumption which are carried on in Great Britain
consists the principal advantage of the Portugal trade; and
though it is not a capital advantage, it is no doubt a
considerable one.
     That any annual addition which, it can reasonably be
supposed, is made either to the plate or to the coin of the
kingdom, could require but a very small annual importation of
gold and silver, seems evident enough; and though we had no
direct trade with Portugal, this small quantity could always,
somewhere or another, be very easily got.
     Though the goldsmith's trade be very considerable in Great
Britain, the far. greater part of the new plate which they
annually sell is made from other old plate melted down; so that
the addition annually made to the whole plate of the kingdom
cannot be very great, and could require but a very small annual
importation.
     It is the same case with the coin. Nobody imagines, I
believe, that even the greater part of the annual coinage,
amounting, for ten years together, before the late reformation of
the gold coin, to upwards of eight hundred thousand pounds a year
in gold, was an annual addition to the money before current in
the kingdom. In a country where the expense of the coinage is
defrayed by the government, the value of the coin, even when it
contains its full standard weight of gold and silver, can never
be much greater than that of an equal quantity of those metals
uncoined; because it requires only the trouble of going to the
mint, and the delay perhaps of a few weeks, to procure for any
quantity of uncoined gold and silver an equal quantity of those
metals in coin. But, in every country, the greater part of the
current coin is almost always more or less worn, or otherwise
degenerated from its standard. In Great Britain it was, before
the late reformation, a good deal so, the gold being more than
two per cent and the silver more than eight per cent below its
standard weight. But if forty-four guineas and a half, containing
their full standard weight, a pound weight of gold, could
purchase very little more than a pound weight could of uncoined
gold, forty-four guineas and a half wanting a part of their
weight could not purchase a pound weight, and something was to be
added in order to make up the deficiency. The current price of
gold bullion at market, therefore, instead of being the same with
the mint price, or L46 14s. 6d., was then about L47 14s. and
sometimes about L48. When the greater part of the coin, however,
was in this degenerate condition, forty-four guineas and a half,
fresh from the mint, would purchase no more goods in the market
than any other ordinary guineas, because when they came into the
coffers of the merchant, being confounded with other money, they
could not afterwards be distinguished without more trouble than
the difference was worth. Like other guineas they were worth no
more than L46 14s. 6d. If thrown into the melting pot, however,
they produced, without any sensible loss, a pound weight of
standard gold, which could be sold at any time for between L47
14s. and L48 either of gold or silver, as fit for all the
purposes of coin as that which had been melted down. There was an
evident profit, therefore, in melting down new coined money, and
it was done so instantaneously, that no precaution of government
could prevent it. The operations of the mint were, upon this
account, somewhat like the web of Penelope; the work that was
done in the day was undone in the night. The mint was employed,
not so much in making daily additions to the coin, as in
replacing the very best part of it which was daily melted down.
     Were the private people, who carry their gold and silver to
the mint, to pay themselves for the coinage, it would add to the
value of those metals in the same manner as the fashion does to
that of plate. Coined gold and silver would be more valuable than
uncoined. The seignorage, if it was not exorbitant, would add to
the bullion the whole value of the duty; because, the government
having everywhere the exclusive privilege of coining, no coin can
come to market cheaper than they think proper to afford it. If
the duty was exorbitant indeed, that is, if it was very much
above the real value of the labour and expense requisite for
coinage, false coiners, both at home and abroad, might be
encouraged, by the great difference between the value of bullion
and that of coin, to pour in so great a quantity of counterfeit
money as might reduce the value of the government money. In
France, however, though the seignorage is eight per cent, no
sensible inconveniency of this kind is found to arise from it.
The dangers to which a false coiner is everywhere exposed, if he
lives in the country of which he counterfeits the coin, and to
which his agents or correspondents are exposed if he lives in a
foreign country, are by far too great to be incurred for the sake
of a profit of six or seven per cent.
     The seignorage in France raises the value of the coin higher
than in proportion to the quantity of pure gold which it
contains. Thus by the edict of January 1726, the mint price of
fine gold of twenty-four carats was fixed at seven hundred and
forty livres nine sous and one denier one-eleventh, the mark of
eight Paris ounces. The gold coin of France, making an allowance
for the remedy of the mint, contains twenty-one carats and
three-fourths of fine gold, and two carats one fourth of alloy.
The mark of standard gold, therefore, is worth no more than about
six hundred and seventy-one livres ten deniers. But in France
this mark of standard gold is coined into thirty Louis d'ors of
twenty-four livres each, or into seven hundred and twenty livres.
The coinage, therefore, increases the value of a mark of standard
gold bullion, by the difference between six hundred and
seventy-one livres ten deniers, and seven hundred and twenty
livres; or by forty-eight livres nineteen sous and two deniers.
     A seignorage will, in many cases, take away altogether, and
will, in all cases, diminish the profit of melting down the new
coin. This profit always arises from the difference between the
quantity of bullion which the common currency ought to contain,
and that which it actually does contain. If this difference is
less than the seignorage, there will be loss instead of profit.
If it is equal to the seignorage, there will neither be profit
nor loss. If it is greater than the seignorage, there will indeed
be some profit, but less than if there was no seignorage. If,
before the late reformation of the gold coin, for example, there
had been a seignorage of five per cent upon the coinage, there
would have been a loss of three per cent upon the melting down of
the gold coin. If the seignorage had been two per cent there
would have been neither profit nor loss. If the seignorage had
been one per cent there would have been a profit, but of one per
cent only instead of two per cent. Wherever money is received by
tale, therefore, and not by weight, a seignorage is the most
effectual preventative of the melting down of the coin, and, for
the same reason, of its exportation. It is the best and heaviest
pieces that are commonly either melted down or exported; because
it is upon such that the largest profits are made.
     The law for encouragement of the coinage, by rendering it
duty-free, was first enacted during the reign of Charles II for a
limited time; and afterwards continued, by different
prolongations, till 1769, when it was rendered perpetual. The
Bank of England, in order to replenish their coffers with money,
are frequently obliged to carry bullion to the mint; and it was
more for their interest, they probably imagined, that the coinage
should be at the expense of the government than at their own. It
was probably out of complaisance to this great company that the
government agreed to render this law perpetual. Should the custom
of weighing gold, however, come to be disused, as it is very
likely to be on account of its inconveniency; should the gold
coin of England come to be received by tale, as it was before the
late recoinage, this great company may, perhaps, find that they
have upon this, as upon some other occasions, mistaken their own
interest not a little.
     Before the late recoinage, when the gold currency of England
was two per cent below its standard weight, as there was no
seignorage, it was two per cent below the value of that quantity
of standard gold bullion which it ought to have contained. When
this great company, therefore, bought gold bullion in order to
have it coined, they were obliged to pay for it two per cent more
than it was worth after coinage. But if there had been a
seignorage of two per cent upon the coinage, the common gold
currency, though two per cent below its standard weight, would
notwithstanding have been equal in value to the quantity of
standard gold which it ought to have contained; the value of the
fashion compensating in this case the diminution of the weight.
They would indeed have had the seignorage to pay, which being two
per cent, their loss upon the whole transaction would have been
two per cent exactly the same, but no greater than it actually
was.
     If the seignorage had been five per cent, and the gold
currency only two per cent below its standard weight, the bank
would in this case have gained three per cent upon the price of
the bullion; but as they would have had a seignorage of five per
cent to pay upon the coinage, their loss upon the whole
transaction would, in the same manner, have been exactly two per
cent.
     If the seignorage had been only one per cent and the gold
currency two per cent below its standard weight, the bank would
in this case have lost only one per cent upon the price of the
bullion; but as they would likewise have had a seignorage of one
per cent to pay, their loss upon the whole transaction would have
been exactly two per cent in the same manner as in all other
cases.
     If there was a reasonable seignorage, while at the same time
the coin contained its full standard weight, as it has done very
nearly since the last recoinage, whatever the bank might lose by
the seignorage, they would gain upon the price of the bullion;
and whatever they might gain upon the price of the bullion, they
would lose by the seignorage. They would neither lose nor gain,
therefore, upon the whole transaction, and they would in this, as
in all the foregoing cases, be exactly in the same situation as
if there was no seignorage.
     When the tax upon a commodity is so moderate as not to
encourage smuggling, the merchant who deals in it, though he
advances, does not properly pay the tax, as he gets it back in
the price of the commodity. The tax is finally paid by the last
purchaser or consumer. But money is a commodity with regard to
which every man is a merchant. Nobody buys it but in order to
sell it again; and with regard to it there is in ordinary cases
no last purchaser or consumer. When the tax upon coinage,
therefore, is so moderate as not to encourage false coining,
though everybody advances the tax, nobody finally pays it;
because everybody gets it back in the advanced value of the coin.
     A moderate seignorage, therefore, would not in any case
augment the expense of the bank, or of any other private persons
who carry their bullion to the mint in order to be coined, and
the want of a moderate seignorage does not in any case diminish
it. Whether there is or is not a seignorage, if the currency
contains its full standard weight, the coinage costs nothing to
anybody, and if it is short of that weight, the coinage must
always cost the difference between the quantity of bullion which
ought to be contained in it, and that which actually is contained
in it.
     The government, therefore, when it defrays the expense of
coinage, not only incurs some small expense, but loses some small
revenue which it might get by a proper duty; and neither the bank
nor any other private persons are in the smallest degree
benefited by this useless piece of public generosity.
     The directors of the bank, however, would probably be
unwilling to agree to the imposition of a seignorage upon the
authority of a speculation which promises them no gain, but only
pretends to insure them from any loss. In the present state of
the gold coin, and as long as it continues to be received by
weight, they certainly would gain nothing by such a change. But
if the custom of weighing the gold coin should ever go into
misuse, as it is very likely to do, and if the gold coin should
ever fall into the same state of degradation in which it was
before the late recoinage, the gain, or more properly the savings
of the bank, in consequence of the imposition of a seignorage,
would probably be very considerable. The Bank of England is the
only company which sends any considerable quantity of bullion to
the mint, and the burden of the annual coinage falls entirely, or
almost entirely, upon it. If this annual coinage had nothing to
do but to repair the unavoidable losses and necessary wear and
tear of the coin, it could seldom exceed fifty thousand or at
most a hundred thousand pounds. But when the coin is degraded
below its standard weight, the annual coinage must, besides this,
fill up the large vacuities which exportation and the melting pot
are continually making in the current coin. It was upon this
account that during the ten or twelve years immediately preceding
the late reformation of the gold coin, the annual coinage
amounted at an average to more than eight hundred and fifty
thousand pounds. But if there had been a seignorage of four or
five per cent upon the gold coin, it would probably, even in the
state in which things then were, have put an effectual stop to
the business both of exportation and of the melting pot. The
bank, instead of losing every year about two and a half per cent
upon the bullion which was to be coined into more than eight
hundred and fifty thousand pounds, or incurring an annual loss of
more than twenty-one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds, would
not probably have incurred the tenth part of that loss.
     The revenue allotted by Parliament for defraying the expense
of the coinage is but fourteen thousand pounds a year, and the
real expense which it costs the government, or the fees of the
officers of the mint, do not upon ordinary occasions, I am
assured, exceed the half of that sum. The saving of so very small
a sum, or even the gaining of another which could not well be
much larger, are objects too inconsiderable, it may be thought,
to deserve the serious attention of government. But the saving of
eighteen or twenty thousand pounds a year in case of an event
which is not improbable, which has frequently happened before,
and which is very likely to happen again, is surely an object
which well deserves the serious attention even of so great a
company as the Bank of England.
     Some of the foregoing reasonings and observations might
perhaps have been more properly placed in those chapters of the
first book which treat of the origin and use of money, and of the
difference between the real and the nominal price of commodities.
But as the law for the encouragement of coinage derives its
origin from those vulgar prejudices which have been introduced by
the mercantile system, I judged it more proper to reserve them
for this chapter. Nothing could be more agreeable to the spirit
of that system than a sort of bounty upon the production of
money, the very thing which, it supposes, constitutes the wealth
of every nation. It is one of its many admirable expedients for
enriching the country.

                         CHAPTER VII

                         Of Colonies 

                            PART 1
         Of the Motives for establishing new Colonies 

     THE interest which occasioned the first settlement of the
different European colonies in America and the West Indies was
not altogether so plain and distinct as that which directed the
establishment of those of ancient Greece and Rome.
     All the different states of ancient Greece possessed, each
of them, but a very small territory, and when the people in any
one of them multiplied beyond what that territory could easily
maintain, a part of them were sent in quest of a new habitation
in some remote and distant part of the world; the warlike
neighbours who surrounded them on all sides, rendering it
difficult for any of them to enlarge very much its territory at
home. The colonies of the Dorians resorted chiefly to Italy and
Sicily, which, in the times preceding the foundation of Rome,
were inhabited by barbarous and uncivilised nations: those of the
Ionians and Aeolians, the two other great tribes of the Greeks,
to Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea, of which the
inhabitants seem at that time to have been pretty much in the
same state as those of Sicily and Italy. The mother city, though
she considered the colony as a child, at all times entitled to
great favour and assistance, and owing in return much gratitude
and respect, yet considered it as an emancipated child over whom
she pretended to claim no direct authority or jurisdiction. The
colony settled its own form of government, enacted its own laws,
elected its own magistrates, and made peace or war with its
neighbours as an independent state, which had no occasion to wait
for the approbation or consent of the mother city. Nothing can be
more plain and distinct than the interest which directed every
such establishment.
     Rome, like most of the other ancient republics, was
originally founded upon an Agrarian law which divided the public
territory in a certain proportion among the different citizens
who composed the state. The course of human affairs by marriage,
by succession, and by alienation, necessarily deranged this
original division, and frequently threw the lands, which had been
allotted for the maintenance of many different families, into the
possession of a single person. To remedy this disorder, for such
it was supposed to be, a law was made restricting the quantity of
land which any citizen could possess to five hundred jugera,
about three hundred and fifty English acres. This law, however,
though we read of its having been executed upon one or two
occasions, was either neglected or evaded, and the inequality of
fortunes went on continually increasing. The greater part of the
citizens had no land, and without it the manners and customs of
those times rendered it difficult for a freeman to maintain his
independency. In the present time, though a poor man has no land
of his own, if he has a little stock he may either farm the lands
of another, or he may carry on some little retail trade; and if
he has no stock, he may find employment either as a country
labourer or as an artificer. But among the ancient Romans the
lands of the rich were all cultivated by slaves, who wrought
under an overseer who was likewise a slave; so that a poor
freeman had little chance of being employed either as a farmer or
as a labourer. All trades and manufactures too, even the retail
trade, were carried on by the slaves of the rich for the benefit
of their masters, whose wealth, authority, and protection made it
difficult for a poor freeman to maintain the competition against
them. The citizens, therefore, who had no land, had scarce any
other means of subsistence but the bounties of the candidates at
the annual elections. The tribunes, when they had a mind to
animate the people against the rich and the great, put them in
mind of the ancient division of lands, and represented that law
which restricted this sort of private property as the fundamental
law of the republic. The people became clamorous to get land, and
the rich and the great, we may believe, were perfectly determined
not to give them any part of theirs. To satisfy them in some
measure therefore, they frequently proposed to send out a new
colony. But conquering Rome was, even upon such occasions, under
no necessity of turning out her citizens to seek their fortune,
if one may say so, through the wide world, without knowing where
they were to settle. She assigned them lands generally in the
conquered provinces of Italy, where, being within the dominions
of the republic, they could never form an independent state; but
were at best but a sort of corporation, which, though it had the
power of enacting bye-laws for its own government, was at all
times subject to the correction, jurisdiction, and legislative
authority of the mother city. The sending out a colony of this
kind not only gave some satisfaction to the people, but often
established a sort of garrison, too, in a newly conquered
province, of which the obedience might otherwise have been
doubtful. A Roman colony therefore, whether we consider the
nature of the establishment itself or the motives for making it,
was altogether different from a Greek one. The words accordingly,
which in the original languages denote those different
establishments, have very different meanings. The Latin word
(Colonia) signifies simply a plantation. The Greek word apoikia,
on the contrary, signifies a separation of dwelling, a departure
from home, a going out of the house. But, though the Roman
colonies were in many respects different from the Greek ones, the
interest which prompted to establish them was equally plain and
distinct. Both institutions derived their origin either from
irresistible necessity, or from clear and evident utility.
     The establishment of the European colonies in America and
the West Indies arose from no necessity: and though the utility
which has resulted from them has been very great, it is not
altogether so clear and evident. It was not understood at their
first establishment, and was not the motive either of that
establishment or of the discoveries which gave occasion to it,
and the nature, extent, and limits of that utility are not,
perhaps, well understood at this day.
     The Venetians, during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, carried on a very advantageous commerce in spiceries,
and other East India goods, which they distributed among the
other nations of Europe. They purchased them chiefly in Egypt, at
that time under the dominion of the Mamelukes, the enemies of the
Turks, of whom the Venetians were the enemies; and this union of
interest, assisted by the money of Venice, formed such a
connection as gave the Venetians almost a monopoly of the trade.
     The great profits of the Venetians tempted the avidity of
the Portuguese. They had been endeavouring, during the course of
the fifteenth century, to find out by sea a way to the countries
from which the Moors brought them ivory and gold dust across the
desert. They discovered the Madeiras, the Canaries, the Azores,
the Cape de Verde Islands, the coast of Guinea, that of Loango,
Congo, Angola, and Benguela, and, finally, the Cape of Good Hope.
They had long wished to share in the profitable traffic of the
Venetians, and this last discovery opened to them a probable
prospect of doing so. In 1497, Vasco de Gama sailed from the port
of Lisbon with a fleet of four ships, and after a navigation of
eleven months arrived upon the coast of Indostan, and thus
completed a course of discoveries which had been pursued with
great steadiness, and with very little interruption, for nearly a
century together.
     Some years before this, while the expectations of Europe
were in suspense about the projects of the Portuguese, of which
the success appeared yet to be doubtful, a Genoese pilot formed
the yet more daring project of sailing to the East Indies by the
West. The situation of those countries was at that time very
imperfectly known in Europe. The few European travellers who had
been there had magnified the distance, perhaps through simplicity
and ignorance, what was really very great appearing almost
infinite to those who could not measure it; or, perhaps, in order
to increase somewhat more the marvellous of their own adventures
in visiting regions so immensely remote from Europe. The longer
the way was by the East, Columbus very justly concluded, the
shorter it would be by the West. He proposed, therefore, to take
that way, as both the shortest and the surest, and he had the
good fortune to convince Isabella of Castile of the probability
of his project. He sailed from the port of Palos in August 1492,
nearly five years before the expedition of Vasco de Gama set out
from Portugal, and, after a voyage of between two and three
months, discovered first some of the small Bahamas or Lucayan
islands, and afterwards the great island of St. Domingo.
     But the countries which Columbus discovered, either in this
or in any of his subsequent voyages, had no resemblance to those
which he had gone in quest of. Instead of the wealth,
cultivation, and populousness of China and Indostan, he found, in
St. Domingo, and in all the other parts of the new world which he
ever visited, nothing but a country quite covered with wood,
uncultivated, and inhabited only by some tribes of naked and
miserable savages. He was not very willing, however, to believe
that they were not the same with some of the countries described
by Marco Polo, the first European who had visited, or at least
had left behind him, any description of China or the East Indies;
and a very slight resemblance, such as that which he found
between the name of Cibao, a mountain in St. Domingo, and that of
Cipango mentioned by Marco Polo, was frequently sufficient to
make him return to this favourite prepossession, though contrary
to the clearest evidence. In his letters to Ferdinand and
Isabella he called the countries which he had discovered the
Indies. He entertained no doubt but that they were the extremity
of those which had been described by Marco Polo, and that they
were not very distant from the Ganges, or from the countries
which had been conquered by Alexander. Even when at last
convinced that they were different, he still flattered himself
that those rich countries were at no great distance, and, in a
subsequent voyage, accordingly, went in quest of them along the
coast of Terra Firma, and towards the Isthmus of Darien.
     In consequence of this mistake of Columbus, the name of the
Indies has stuck to those unfortunate countries ever since; and
when it was at last clearly discovered that the new were
altogether different from the old Indies, the former were called
the West, in contradistinction to the latter, which were called
the East Indies.
     It was of importance to Columbus, however, that the
countries which he had discovered, whatever they were, should be
represented to the court of Spain as of very great consequence;
and, in what constitutes the real riches of every country, the
animal and vegetable productions of the soil, there was at that
time nothing which could well justify such a representation of
them.
     The Cori, something between a rat and a rabbit, and supposed
by Mr. Buffon to be the same with the Aperea of Brazil, was the
largest viviparous quadruped in St. Domingo. This species seems
never to have been very numerous, and the dogs and cats of the
Spaniards are said to have long ago almost entirely extirpated
it, as well as some other tribes of a still smaller size. These,
however, together with a pretty large lizard, called the ivana,
or iguana, constituted the principal part of the animal food
which the land afforded.
     The vegetable food of the inhabitants, though from their
want of industry not very abundant, was not altogether so scanty.
It consisted in Indian corn, yams, potatoes, bananas, etc.,
plants which were then altogether unknown in Europe, and which
have never since been very much esteemed in it, or supposed to
yield a sustenance equal to what is drawn from the common sorts
of grain and pulse, which have been cultivated in this part of
the world time out of mind.
     The cotton plant, indeed, afforded the material of a very
important manufacture, and was at that time to Europeans
undoubtedly the most valuable of all the vegetable productions of
those islands. But though in the end of the fifteenth century the
muslins and other cotton goods of the East Indies were much
esteemed in every part of Europe, the cotton manufacture itself
was not cultivated in any part of it. Even this production,
therefore, could not at that time appear in the eyes of Europeans
to be of very great consequence.
     Finding nothing either in the animals or vegetables of the
newly discovered countries which could justify a very
advantageous representation of them, Columbus turned his view
towards their minerals; and in the richness of the productions of
this third kingdom, he flattered himself he had found a full
compensation for the insignificancy of those of the other two.
The little bits of gold with which the inhabitants ornamented
their dress, and which, he was informed, they frequently found in
the rivulets and torrents that fell from the mountains, were
sufficient to satisfy him that those mountains abounded with the
richest gold mines. St. Domingo, therefore, was represented as a
country abounding with gold, and, upon that account, (according
to the prejudices not only of the present time, but of those
times) an inexhaustible source of real wealth to the crown and
kingdom of Spain. When Columbus, upon his return from his first
voyage, was introduced with a sort of triumphal honours to the
sovereigns of Castile and Arragon, the principal productions of
the countries which he had discovered were carried in solemn
procession before him. The only valuable part of them consisted
in some little fillets, bracelets, and other ornaments of gold,
and in some bales of cotton. The rest were mere objects of vulgar
wonder and curiosity; some reeds of an extraordinary size, some
birds of a very beautiful plumage, and some stuffed skins of the
huge alligator and manati; all of which were preceded by six or
seven of the wretched natives, whose singular colour and
appearance added greatly to the novelty of the show.
     In consequence of the representations of Columbus, the
council of Castile determined to take possession of countries of
which the inhabitants were plainly incapable of defending
themselves. The pious purpose of converting them to Christianity
sanctified the injustice of the project. But the hope of finding
treasures of gold there was the sole motive which prompted him to
undertake it; and to give this motive the greater weight, it was
proposed by Columbus that the half of all the gold and silver
that should be found there should belong to the crown. This
proposal was approved of by the council.
     As long as the whole or the far greater part of the gold,
which the first adventurers imported into Europe, was got by so
very easy a method as the plundering of the defenceless natives,
it was not perhaps very difficult to pay even this heavy tax. But
when the natives were once fairly stripped of all that they had,
which, in St. Domingo, and in all the other countries discovered
by Columbus, was done completely in six or eight years, and when
in order to find more it had become necessary to dig for it in
the mines, there was no longer any possibility of paying this
tax. The rigorous exaction of it, accordingly, first occasioned,
it is said, the total abandoning of the mines of St. Domingo,
which have never been wrought since. It was soon reduced
therefore to a third; then to a fifth; afterwards to a tenth; and
at last to a twentieth part of the gross produce of the gold
mines. The tax upon silver continued for a long time to be a
fifth of the gross produce. It was reduced to a tenth only in the
course of the present century. But the first adventurers do not
appear to have been much interested about silver. Nothing less
precious than gold seemed worthy of their attention.
     All the other enterprises of the Spaniards in the new world,
subsequent to those of Columbus, seem to have been prompted by
the same motive. It was the sacred thirst of gold that carried
Oieda, Nicuessa, and Vasco Nugnes de Balboa, to the Isthmus of
Darien, that carried Cortez to Mexico, and Almagro and Pizzarro
to Chili and Peru. When those adventurers arrived upon any
unknown coast, their first inquiry was always if there was any
gold to be found there; and according to the information which
they received concerning this particular, they determined either
to quit the country or to settle in it.
     Of all those expensive and uncertain projects, however,
which bring bankruptcy upon the greater part of the people who
engage in them, there is none perhaps more ruinous than the
search after new silver and gold mines. It is perhaps the most
disadvantageous lottery in the world, or the one in which the
gain of those who draw the prizes bears the least proportion to
the loss of those who draw the blanks: for though the prizes are
few and the blanks many, the common price of a ticket is the
whole fortune of a very rich man. Projects of mining, instead of
replacing the capital employed in them, together with the
ordinary profits of stock, commonly absorb both capital and
profit. They are the projects, therefore, to which of all others
a prudent lawgiver, who desired to increase the capital of his
nation, would least choose to give any extraordinary
encouragement, or to turn towards them a greater share of that
capital than that would go to them of its own accord. Such in
reality is the absurd confidence which almost all men have in
their own good fortune that, wherever there is the least
probability of success, too great a share of it is apt to go to
them of its own accord.
     But though the judgment of sober reason and experience
concerning such projects has always been extremely unfavourable,
that of human avidity has commonly been quite otherwise. The same
passion which has suggested to so many people the absurd idea of
the philosopher's stone, has suggested to others the equally
absurd one of immense rich mines of gold and silver. They did not
consider that the value of those metals has, in all ages and
nations, arisen chiefly from their scarcity, and that their
scarcity has arisen from the very small quantities of them which
nature has anywhere deposited in one place, from the hard and
intractable substances with which she has almost everywhere
surrounded those small quantities, and consequently from the
labour and expense which are everywhere necessary in order to
penetrate to and get at them. They flattered themselves that
veins of those metals might in many places be found as large and
as abundant as those which are commonly found of lead, or copper,
or tin, or iron. The dream of Sir Walter Raleigh concerning the
golden city and country of Eldorado, may satisfy us that even
wise men are not always exempt from such strange delusions. More
than a hundred years after the death of that great man, the
Jesuit Gumila was still convinced of the reality of that
wonderful country, and expressed with great warmth, and I dare to
say with great sincerity, how happy he should be to carry the
light of the gospel to a people who could so well reward the
pious labours of their missionary.
     In the countries first discovered by the Spaniards, no gold
or silver mines are at present known which are supposed to be
worth the working. The quantities of those metals which the first
adventurers are said to have found there had probably been very
much magnified, as well as the fertility of the mines which were
wrought immediately after the first discovery. What those
adventurers were reported to have found, however, was sufficient
to inflame the avidity of all their countrymen. Every Spaniard
who sailed to America expected to find an Eldorado. Fortune, too,
did upon this what she has done upon very few other occasions.
She realized in some measure the extravagant hopes of her
votaries, and in the discovery and conquest of Mexico and Peru
(of which the one happened about thirty, the other about forty
years after the first expedition of Columbus), she presented them
with something not very unlike that profusion of the precious
metals which they sought for.
     A project of commerce to the East Indies, therefore, gave
occasion to the first discovery of the West. A project of
conquest gave occasion to all the establishments of the Spaniards
in those newly discovered countries. The motive which excited
them to this conquest was a project of gold and silver mines; and
a course of accidents, which no human wisdom could foresee,
rendered this project much more successful than the undertakers
had any reasonable grounds for expecting.
     The first adventurers of all the other nations of Europe who
attempted to make settlements in America were animated by the
like chimerical views; but they were not equally successful. It
was more than a hundred years after the first settlement of the
Brazils before any silver, gold, or diamond mines were discovered
there. In the English, French, Dutch, and Danish colonies, none
have ever yet been discovered; at least none that are at present
supposed to be worth the working. The first English settlers in
North America, however, offered a fifth of all the gold and
silver which should be found there to the king, as a motive for
granting them their patents. In the patents to Sir Walter
Raleigh, to the London and Plymouth Companies, to the Council of
Plymouth, etc., this fifth was accordingly reserved to the crown.
To the expectation of finding gold and silver mines, those first
settlers, too, joined that of discovering a northwest passage to
the East Indies. They have hitherto been disappointed in both.
                            PART 2
             Causes of Prosperity of New Colonies 
     THE colony of a civilised nation which takes possession
either of a waste country, or of one so thinly inhabited that the
natives easily give place to the new settlers, advances more
rapidly to wealth and greatness than any other human society.
     The colonists carry out with them a knowledge of agriculture
and of other useful arts superior to what can grow up of its own
accord in the course of many centuries among savage and barbarous
nations. They carry out with them, too, the habit of
subordination, some notion of the regular government which takes
place in their own country, of the system of laws which support
it, and of a regular administration of justice; and they
naturally establish something of the same kind in the new
settlement. But among savage and barbarous nations, the natural
progress of law and government is still slower than the natural
progress of arts, after law and government have been go far
established as is necessary for their protection. Every colonist
gets more land than he can possibly cultivate. He has no rent,
and scarce any taxes to pay. No landlord shares with him in its
produce, and the share of the sovereign is commonly but a trifle.
He has every motive to render as great as possible a produce,
which is thus to be almost entirely his own. But his land is
commonly so extensive that, with all his own industry, and with
all the industry of other people whom he can get to employ, he
can seldom make it produce the tenth part of what it is capable
of producing. He is eager, therefore, to collect labourers from
all quarters, and to reward them with the most liberal wages. But
those liberal wages, joined to the plenty and cheapness of land,
soon make those labourers leave him, in order to become landlords
themselves, and to reward, with equal liberality, other
labourers, who soon leave them for the same reason that they left
their first master. The liberal reward of labour encourages
marriage. The children, during the tender years of infancy, are
well fed and properly taken care of, and when they are grown up,
the value of their labour greatly overpays their maintenance.
When arrived at maturity, the high price of labour, and the low
price of land, enable them to establish themselves in the same
manner as their fathers did before them.
     In other countries, rent and profit eat up wages, and the
two superior orders of people oppress the inferior one. But in
new colonies the interest of the two superior orders obliges them
to treat the inferior one with more generosity and humanity; at
least where that inferior one is not in a state of slavery. Waste
lands of the greatest natural fertility are to be had for a
trifle. The increase of revenue which the proprietor, who is
always the undertaker, expects from their improvement,
constitutes his profit which in these circumstances is commonly
very great. But this great profit cannot be made without
employing the labour of other people in clearing and cultivating
the land; and the disproportion between the great extent of the
land and the small number of the people, which commonly takes
place in new colonies, makes it difficult for him to get this
labour. He does not, therefore, dispute about wages, but is
willing to employ labour at any price. The high wages of labour
encourage population. The cheapness and plenty of good land
encourage improvement, and enable the proprietor to pay those
high wages. In those wages consists almost the whole price of the
land; and though they are high considered as the wages of labour,
they are low considered as the price of what is so very valuable.
What encourages the progress of population and improvement
encourages that of real wealth and greatness.
     The progress of many of the ancient Greek colonies towards
wealth and greatness seems accordingly to have been very rapid.
In the course of a century or two, several of them appear to have
rivalled, and even to have surpassed their mother cities.
Syracuse and Agrigentum in Sicily, Tarentum and Locri in Italy,
Ephesus and Miletus in Lesser Asia, appear by all accounts to
have been at least equal to any of the cities of ancient Greece.
Though posterior in their establishment, yet all the arts of
refinement, philosophy, poetry, and eloquence seem to have been
cultivated as early, and to have been improved as highly in them
as in any part of the mother country. The schools of the two
oldest Greek philosophers, those of Thales and Pythagoras, were
established, it is remarkable, not in ancient Greece, but the one
in an Asiatic, the other in an Italian colony. All those colonies
had established themselves in countries inhabited by savage and
barbarous nations, who easily gave place to the new settlers.
They had plenty of good land, and as they were altogether
independent of the mother city, they were at liberty to manage
their own affairs in the way that they judged was most suitable
to their own interest.
     The history of the Roman colonies is by no means so
brilliant. Some of them, indeed, such as Florence, have in the
course of many ages, and after the fall of the mother city, grown
up to be considerable states. But the progress of no one of them
seems ever to have been very rapid. They were all established in
conquered provinces, which in most cases had been fully inhabited
before. The quantity of land assigned to each colonist was seldom
very considerable, and as the colony was not independent, they
were not always at liberty to manage their own affairs in the way
they judged was most suitable to their own interest.
     In the plenty of good land, the European colonies
established in America and the West Indies resemble, and even
greatly surpass, those of ancient Greece. In their dependency
upon the mother state, they resemble those of ancient Rome; but
their great distance from Europe has in all of them alleviated
more or less the effects of this dependency. Their situation has
placed them less in the view and less in the power of their
mother country. In pursuing their interest their own way, their
conduct has, upon many occasions, been overlooked, either because
not known or not understood in Europe; and upon some occasions it
has been fairly suffered and submitted to, because their distance
rendered it difficult to restrain it. Even the violent and
arbitrary government of Spain has, upon many occasions, been
obliged to recall or soften the orders which had been given for
the government of her colonies for fear of a general
insurrection. The progress of all the European colonies in
wealth, population, and improvement, has accordingly been very
great.
     The crown of Spain, by its share of the gold and silver,
derived some revenue from its colonies from the moment of their
first establishment. It was a revenue, too, of a nature to excite
in human avidity the most extravagant expectations of still
greater riches. The Spanish colonies, therefore, from the moment
of their first establishment, attracted very much the attention
of their mother country, while those of the other European
nations were for a long time in a great measure neglected. The
former did not, perhaps, thrive the better in consequence of this
attention; nor the latter the worse in consequence of this
neglect. In proportion to the extent of the country which they in
some measure possess, the Spanish colonies are considered as less
populous and thriving than those of almost any other European
nation. The progress even of the Spanish colonies, however, in
population and improvement, has certainly been very rapid and
very great. The city of Lima, founded since the conquest, is
represented by Ulloa as containing fifty thousand inhabitants
near thirty years ago. Quito, which had been but a miserable
hamlet of Indians, is represented by the same author as in his
time equally populous. Gemelli Carreri, a pretended traveller, it
is said, indeed, but who seems everywhere to have written upon
extremely good information, represents the city of Mexico as
containing a hundred thousand inhabitants; a number which, in
spite of all the exaggerations of the Spanish writers, is,
probably, more than five times greater than what it contained in
the time of Montezuma. These numbers exceed greatly those of
Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, the three greatest cities of
the English colonies. Before the conquest of the Spaniards there
were no cattle fit for draught either in Mexico or Peru. The
llama was their only beast of burden, and its strength seems to
have been a good deal inferior to that of a common ass. The
plough was unknown among them. They were ignorant of the use of
iron. They had no coined money, nor any established instrument of
commerce of any kind. Their commerce was carried on by barter. A
sort of wooden spade was their principal instrument of
agriculture. Sharp stones served them for knives and hatchets to
cut with; fish bones and the hard sinews of certain animals
served them for needles to sew with; and these seem to have been
their principal instruments of trade. In this state of things, it
seems impossible that either of those empires could have been so
much improved or so well cultivated as at present, when they are
plentifully furnished with all sorts of European cattle, and when
the use of iron, of the plough, and of many of the arts of
Europe, has been introduced among them. But the populousness of
every country must be in proportion to the degree of its
improvement and cultivation. In spite of the cruel destruction of
the natives which followed the conquest, these two great empires
are, probably, more populous now than they ever were before: and
the people are surely very different; for we must acknowledge, I
apprehend, that the Spanish creoles are in many respects superior
to the ancient Indians.
     After the settlements of the Spaniards, that of the
Portuguese in Brazil is the oldest of any European nation in
America. But as for a long time after the first discovery neither
gold nor silver mines were found in it, and as it afforded, upon
that account, little or no revenue to the crown, it was for a
long time in a great measure neglected; and during this state of
neglect it grew up to be a great and powerful colony. While
Portugal was under the dominion of Spain, Brazil was attacked by
the Dutch, who got possession of seven of the fourteen provinces
into which it is divided. They expected soon to conquer the other
seven, when Portugal recovered its independency by the elevation
of the family of Braganza to the throne. The Dutch then, as
enemies to the Spaniards, became friends to the Portuguese, who
were likewise the enemies of the Spaniards. They agreed,
therefore, to leave that part of Brazil, which they had not
conquered, to the King of Portugal, who agreed to leave that part
which they had conquered to them, as a matter not worth disputing
about with such good allies. But the Dutch government soon began
to oppress the Portuguese colonists, who, instead of amusing
themselves with complaints, took arms against their new masters,
and by their own valour and resolution, with the connivance,
indeed, but without any avowed assistance from the mother
country, drove them out of Brazil. The Dutch, therefore, finding
it impossible to keep any part of the country to themselves, were
contented that it should be entirely restored to the crown of
Portugal. In this colony there are said to be more than six
hundred thousand people, either Portuguese or descended from
Portuguese, creoles, mulattoes, and a mixed race between
Portuguese and Brazilians. No one colony in America is supposed
to contain so great a number of people of European extraction.
     Towards the end of the fifteenth, and during the greater
part of the sixteenth century, Spain and Portugal were the two
great naval powers upon the ocean; for though the commerce of
Venice extended to every part of Europe, its fleets had scarce
ever sailed beyond the Mediterranean. The Spaniards, in virtue of
the first discovery, claimed all America as their own; and though
they could not hinder so great a naval power as that of Portugal
from settling in Brazil, such was, at that time, the terror of
their name, that the greater part of the other nations of Europe
were afraid to establish themselves in any other part of that
great continent. The French, who attempted to settle in Florida,
were all murdered by the Spaniards. But the declension of the
naval power of this latter nation, in consequence of the defeat
or miscarriage of what they called their Invincible Armada, which
happened towards the end of the sixteenth century, put it out of
their power to obstruct any longer the settlements of the other
European nations. In the course of the seventeenth century,
therefore, the English, French, Dutch, Danes, and Swedes, all the
great nations who had any ports upon the ocean, attempted to make
some settlements in the new world.
     The Swedes established themselves in New Jersey; and the
number of Swedish families still to be found there sufficiently
demonstrates that this colony was very likely to prosper had it
been protected by the mother country. But being neglected by
Sweden, it was soon swallowed up by the Dutch colony of New York,
which again, in 1674, fell under the dominion of the English.
     The small islands of St. Thomas and Santa Cruz are the only
countries in the new world that have ever been possessed By the
Danes. These little settlements, too, were under the government
of an exclusive company, which had the sole right, both of
purchasing the surplus produce of the colonists, and of supplying
them with such goods of other countries as they wanted, and
which, therefore, both in its purchases and sales, had not only
the power of oppressing them, but the greatest temptation to do
so. The government of an exclusive company of merchants is,
perhaps, the worst of all governments for any country whatever.
It was not, however, able to stop altogether the progress of
these colonies, though it rendered it more slow and languid. The
late King of Denmark dissolved this company, and since that time
the prosperity of these colonies has been very great.
     The Dutch settlements in the West, as well as those in the
East Indies, were originally put under the government of an
exclusive company. The progress of some of them, therefore,
though it has been considerable, in comparison with that of
almost any country that has been long peopled and established,
has been languid and slow in comparison with that of the greater
part of new colonies. The colony of Surinam, though very
considerable, is still inferior to the greater part of the sugar
colonies of the other European nations. The colony of Nova
Belgia, now divided into the two provinces of New York and New
Jersey, would probably have soon become considerable too, even
though it had remained under the government of the Dutch. The
plenty and cheapness of good land are such powerful causes of
prosperity that the very worst government is scarce capable of
checking altogether the efficacy of their operation. The great
distance, too, from the mother country would enable the colonists
to evade more or less, by smuggling, the monopoly which the
company enjoyed against them. At present the company allows all
Dutch ships to trade to Surinam upon paying two and a half per
cent upon the value of their cargo for a licence; and only
reserves to itself exclusively the direct trade from Africa to
America, which consists almost entirely in the slave trade. This
relaxation in the exclusive privileges of the company is probably
the principal cause of that degree of prosperity which that
colony at present enjoys. Curacoa and Eustatia, the two principal
islands belonging to the Dutch, are free ports open to the ships
of all nations; and this freedom, in the midst of better colonies
whose ports are open to those of one nation only, has been the
great cause of the prosperity of those two barren islands.
     The French colony of Canada was, during the greater part of
the last century, and some part of the present, under the
government of an exclusive company. Under so unfavourable an
administration its progress was necessarily very slow in
comparison with that of other new colonies; but it became much
more rapid when this company was dissolved after the fall of what
is called the Mississippi scheme. When the English got possession
of this country, they found in it near double the number of
inhabitants which Father Charlevoix had assigned to it between
twenty and thirty years before. That Jesuit had travelled over
the whole country, and had no inclination to represent it as less
considerable than it really was.
     The French colony of St. Domingo was established by pirates
and freebooters, who, for a long time, neither required the
protection, nor acknowledged the authority of France; and when
that race of banditti became so far citizens as to acknowledge
this authority, it was for a long time necessary to exercise it
with very great gentleness. During this period the population and
improvement of this colony increased very fast. Even the
oppression of the exclusive company, to which it was for some
time subjected, with all the other colonies of France, though it
no doubt retarded, had not been able to stop its progress
altogether. The course of its prosperity returned as soon as it
was relieved from that oppression. It is now the most important
of the sugar colonies of the West Indies, and its produce is said
to be greater than that of all the English sugar colonies put
together. The other sugar colonies of France are in general all
very thriving.
     But there are no colonies of which the progress has been
more rapid than that of the English in North America.
     Plenty of good land, and liberty to manage their own affairs
their own way, seem to be the two great causes of the prosperity
of all new colonies.
     In the plenty of good land the English colonies of North
America, though no doubt very abundantly provided, are however
inferior to those of the Spaniards and Portuguese, and not
superior to some of those possessed by the French before the late
war. But the political institutions of the English colonies have
been more favourable to the improvement and cultivation of this
land than those of any of the other three nations.
     First, the engrossing of uncultivated land, though it has by
no means been prevented altogether, has been more restrained in
the English colonies than in any other. The colony law which
imposes upon every proprietor the obligation of improving and
cultivating, within a limited time, a certain proportion of his
lands, and which in case of failure, declares those neglected
lands grantable to any other person, though it has not, perhaps,
been very strictly executed, has, however, had some effect.
     Secondly, in Pennsylvania there is no right of
primogeniture, and lands, like movables, are divided equally
among all the children of the family. In three of the provinces
of New England the oldest has only a double share, as in the
Mosaical law. Though in those provinces, therefore, too great a
quantity of land should sometimes be engrossed by a particular
individual, it is likely, in the course of a generation or two,
to be sufficiently divided again. In the other English colonies,
indeed, the right of primogeniture takes place, as in the law of
England. But in all the English colonies the tenure of the lands,
which are all held by free socage, facilitates alienation, and
the grantee of any extensive tract of land generally finds it for
his interest to alienate, as fast as he can, the greater part of
it, reserving only a small quit-rent. In the Spanish and
Portuguese colonies, what is called the right of Majorazzo takes
place in the succession of all those great estates to which any
title of honour is annexed. Such estates go all to one person,
and are in effect entailed and unalienable. The French colonies,
indeed, are subject to the custom of Paris, which, in the
inheritance of land, is much more favourable to the younger
children than the law of England. But in the French colonies, if
any part of an estate, held by the noble tenure of chivalry and
homage, is alienated, it is, for a limited time, subject to the
right of redemption, either by the heir of the superior or by the
heir of the family; and all the largest estates of the country
are held by such noble tenures, which necessarily embarrass
alienation. But in a new colony a great uncultivated estate is
likely to be much more speedily divided by alienation than by
succession. The plenty and cheapness of good land, it has already
been observed, are the principal causes of the rapid prosperity
of new colonies. The engrossing of land, in effect, destroys this
plenty and cheapness. The engrossing of uncultivated land,
besides, is the greatest obstruction to its improvement. But the
labour that is employed in the improvement and cultivation of
land affords the greatest and most valuable produce to the
society. The produce of labour, in this case, pays not only its
own wages, and the profit of the stock which employs it, but the
rent of the land too upon which it is employed. The labour of the
English colonists, therefore, being more employed in the
improvement and cultivation of land, is likely to afford a
greater and more valuable produce than that of any of the other
three nations, which, by the engrossing of land, is more or less
diverted towards other employments.
     Thirdly, the labour of the English colonists is not only
likely to afford a greater and more valuable produce, but, in
consequence of the moderation of their taxes, a greater
proportion of this produce belongs to themselves, which they may
store up and employ in putting into motion a still greater
quantity of labour. The English colonists have never yet
contributed anything towards the defence of the mother country,
or towards the support of its civil government. They themselves,
on the contrary, have hitherto been defended almost entirely at
the expense of the mother country. But the expense of fleets and
armies is out of all proportion greater than the necessary
expense of civil government. The expense of their own civil
government has always been very moderate. It has generally been
confined to what was necessary for paying competent salaries to
the governor, to the judges, and to some other officers of
police, and for maintaining a few of the most useful public
works. The expense of the civil establishment of Massachusetts
Bay, before the commencement of the present disturbances, used to
be but about L18,000 a year. That of New Hampshire and Rhode
Island, L3500 each. That of Connecticut, L4000. That of New York
and Pennsylvania, L4500 each. That of New Jersey, L1200. That of
Virginia and South Carolina, L8000 each. The civil establishments
of Nova Scotia and Georgia are partly supported by an annual
grant of Parliament. But Nova Scotia pays, besides, about L7000 a
year towards the public expenses of the colony; and Georgia about
L2500 a year. All the different civil establishments in North
America, in short, exclusive of those of Maryland and North
Carolina, of which no exact account has been got, did not, before
the commencement of the present disturbances, cost the
inhabitants above L64,700 a year; an ever-memorable example at
how small an expense three millions of people may not only be
governed, but well governed. The most important part of the
expense of government, indeed, that of defence and protection,
has constantly fallen upon the mother country. The ceremonial,
too, of the civil government in the colonies, upon the reception
of a new governor, upon the opening of a new assembly, etc.,
though sufficiently decent, is not accompanied with any expensive
pomp or parade. Their ecclesiastical government is conducted upon
a plan equally frugal. Tithes are unknown among them; and their
clergy, who are far from being numerous, are maintained either by
moderate stipends, or by the voluntary contributions of the
people. The power of Spain and Portugal, on the contrary, derives
some support from the taxes levied upon their colonies. France,
indeed, has never drawn any considerable revenue from its
colonies, the taxes which it levies upon them being generally
spent among them. But the colony government of all these three
nations is conducted upon a much more expensive ceremonial. The
sums spent upon the reception of a new viceroy of Peru, for
example, have frequently been enormous. Such ceremonials are not
only real taxes paid by the rich colonists upon those particular
occasions, but they serve to introduce among them the habit of
vanity and expense upon all other occasions. They are not only
very grievous occasional taxes, but they contribute to establish
perpetual taxes of the same kind still more grievous; the ruinous
taxes of private luxury and extravagance. In the colonies of all
those three nations too, the ecclesiastical government is
extremely oppressive. Tithes take place in all of them, and are
levied with the utmost rigour in those of Spain and Portugal. All
of them, besides, are oppressed with a numerous race of mendicant
friars, whose beggary being not only licensed but consecrated by
religion, is a most grievous tax upon the poor people, who are
most carefully taught that it is a duty to give, and a very great
sin to refuse them their charity. Over and above all this, the
clergy are, in all of them, the greatest engrossers of land.
     Fourthly, in the disposal of their surplus produce, or of
what is over and above their own consumption, the English
colonies have been more favoured, and have been allowed a more
extensive market, than those of any other European nation. Every
European nation has endeavoured more or less to monopolise to
itself the commerce of its colonies, and, upon that account, has
prohibited the ships of foreign nations from trading to them, and
has prohibited them from importing European goods from any
foreign nation. But the manner in which this monopoly has been
exercised in different nations has been very different.
     Some nations have given up the whole commerce of their
colonies to an exclusive company, of whom the colonists were
obliged to buy all such European goods as they wanted, and to
whom they were obliged to sell the whole of their own surplus
produce. It was the interest of the company, therefore, not only
to sell the former as dear, and to buy the latter as cheap as
possible, but to buy no more of the latter, even at this low
price than what they could dispose of for a very high price in
Europe. It was their interest, not only to degrade in all cases
the value of the surplus produce of the colony, but in many cases
to discourage and keep down the natural increase of its quantity.
Of all the expedients that can well be contrived to stunt the
natural growth of a new colony, that of an exclusive company is
undoubtedly the most effectual. This, however, has been the
policy of Holland, though their company, in the course of the
present century, has given up in many respects the exertion of
their exclusive privilege. This, too, was the policy of Denmark
till the reign of the late king. It has occasionally been the
policy of France, and of late, since 1755, after it had been
abandoned by all other nations on account of its absurdity, it
has become the policy of Portugal with regard at least to two of
the principal provinces of Brazil, Fernambuco and Marannon.
     Other nations, without establishing an exclusive company,
have confined the whole commerce of their colonies to a
particular port of the mother country, from whence no ship was
allowed to sail, but either in a fleet and at a particular
season, or, if single, in consequence of a particular licence,
which in most cases was very well paid for. This policy opened,
indeed, the trade of the colonies to all the natives of the
mother country, provided they traded from the proper port, at the
proper season, and in the proper vessels. But as all the
different merchants, who joined their stocks in order to fit out
those licensed vessels, would find it for their interest to act
in concert, the trade which was carried on in this manner would
necessarily be conducted very nearly upon the same principles as
that of an exclusive company. The profit of those merchants would
be almost equally exorbitant and oppressive. The colonies would
be ill supplied, and would be obliged both to buy very dear, and
to sell very cheap. This, however, till within these few years,
had always been the policy of Spain, and the price of all
European goods, accordingly, is said to have been enormous in the
Spanish West Indies. At Quito, we are told by Ulloa, a pound of
iron sold for about four and sixpence, and a pound of steel for
about six and ninepence sterling. But it is chiefly in order to
purchase European goods that the colonies part with their own
produce. The more, therefore, they pay for the one, the less they
really get for the other, and the dearness of the one is the same
thing with the cheapness of the other. The policy of Portugal is
in this respect the same as the ancient policy of Spain with
regard to all its colonies, except Fernambuco and Marannon, and
with regard to these it has lately adopted a still worse.
     Other nations leave the trade of their colonies free to all
their subjects who may carry it on from all the different ports
of the mother country, and who have occasion for no other licence
than the common despatches of the custom-house. In this case the
number and dispersed situation of the different traders renders
it impossible for them to enter into any general combination, and
their competition is sufficient to hinder them from making very
exorbitant profits. Under so liberal a policy the colonies are
enabled both to sell their own produce and to buy the goods of
Europe at a reasonable price. But since the dissolution of the
Plymouth Company, when our colonies were but in their infancy,
this has always been the policy of England. It has generally,
too, been that of France, and has been uniformly so since the
dissolution of what, in England, is commonly called their
Mississippi Company. The profits of the trade, therefore, which
France and England carry on with their colonies, though no doubt
somewhat higher than if the competition was free to all other
nations, are, however, by no means exorbitant; and the price of
European goods accordingly is not extravagantly high in the
greater part of the colonies of either of those nations.
     In the exportation of their own surplus produce too, it is
only with regard to certain commodities that the colonies of
Great Britain are confined to the market of the mother country.
These commodities having been enumerated in the Act of Navigation
and in some other subsequent acts, have upon that account been
called enumerated commodities. The rest are called
non-enumerated, and may be exported directly to other countries
provided it is in British or Plantation ships, of which the
owners and three-fourths of the mariners are British subjects.
     Among the non-enumerated commodities are some of the most
important productions of America and the West Indies; grain of
all sorts, lumber, salt provisions, fish, sugar and rum.
     Grain is naturally the first and principal object of the
culture of all new colonies. By allowing them a very extensive
market for it, the law encourages them to extend this culture
much beyond the consumption of a thinly inhabited country, and
thus to provide beforehand an ample subsistence for a continually
increasing population.
     In a country quite covered with wood, where timber
consequently is of little or no value, the expense of clearing
the ground is the principal obstacle to improvement. By allowing
the colonies a very extensive market for their lumber, the law
endeavours to facilitate improvement by raising the price of a
commodity which would otherwise be of little value, and thereby
enabling them to make some profit of what would otherwise be a
mere expense.
     In a country neither half-peopled nor half-cultivated,
cattle naturally multiply beyond the consumption of the
inhabitants, and are often upon that account of little or no
value. But it is necessary, it has already been shown, that the
price of cattle should bear a certain proportion to that of corn
before the greater part of the lands of any country can be
improved. By allowing to American cattle, in all shapes, dead or
alive, a very extensive market, the law endeavors to raise the
value of a commodity of which the high price is so very essential
to improvement. The good effects of this liberty, however, must
be somewhat diminished by the 4th of George III, c. 15, which
puts hides and skins among the enumerated commodities, and
thereby tends to reduce the value of American cattle.
     To increase the shipping and naval power of Great Britain,
by the extension of the fisheries of our colonies, is an object
which the legislature seems to have had almost constantly in
view. Those fisheries, upon this account, have had all the
encouragement which freedom can give them, and they have
flourished accordingly. The New England fishery in particular
was, before the late disturbances, one of the most important,
perhaps, in the world. The whale-fishery which, notwithstanding
an extravagant bounty, is in Great Britain carried on to so
little purpose that in the opinion of many people (which I do
not, however, pretend to warrant) the whole produce does not much
exceed the value of the bounties which are annually paid for it,
is in New England carried on without any bounty to a very great
extent. Fish is one of the principal articles with which the
North Americans trade to Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean.
     Sugar was originally an enumerated commodity which could be
exported only to Great Britain. But in 1731, upon a
representation of the sugar-planters, its exportation was
permitted to all parts of the world. The restrictions, however,
with which this liberty was granted, joined to the high price of
sugar in Great Britain, have rendered it, in a great measure,
ineffectual. Great Britain and her colonies still continue to be
almost the sole market for all the sugar produced in the British
plantations. Their consumption increases so fast that, though in
consequence of the increasing improvement of Jamaica, as well as
of the Ceded Islands, the importation of sugar has increased very
greatly within these twenty years, the exportation to foreign
countries is said to be not much greater than before.
     Rum is a very important article in the trade which the
Americans carry on to the coast of Africa, from which they bring
back negro slaves in return.
     If the whole surplus produce of America in grain of all
sorts, in salt provisions and in fish, had been put into the
enumeration, and thereby forced into the market of Great Britain,
it would have interfered too much with the produce of the
industry of our own people. It was probably not so much from any
regard to the interest of America as from a jealousy of this
interference that those important commodities have not only been
kept out of the enumeration, but that the importation into Great
Britain of all grain, except rice, and of salt provisions, has,
in the ordinary state of the law, been prohibited.
     The non-enumerated commodities could originally be exported
to all parts of the world. Lumber and rice, having been once put
into the enumeration, when they were afterwards taken out of it,
were confined, as to the European market, to the countries that
lie south of Cape Finisterre. By the 6th of George III, c. 52,
all non-enumerated commodities were subjected to the like
restriction. The parts of Europe which lie south of Cape
Finisterre are not manufacturing countries, and we were less
jealous of the colony ships carrying home from them any
manufactures which could interfere with our own.
     The enumerated commodities are of two sorts: first, such as
are either the peculiar produce of America, or as cannot be
produced, or at least are not produced, in the mother country. Of
this kind are molasses, coffee, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, pimento,
ginger, whalefins, raw silk, cotton-wool, beaver, and other
peltry of America, indigo, fustic, and other dyeing woods;
secondly, such as are not the peculiar produce of America, but
which are and may be produced in the mother country, though not
in such quantities as to supply the greater part of her demand,
which is principally supplied from foreign countries. Of this
kind are all naval stores, masts, yards, and bowsprits, tar,
pitch, and turpentine, pig and bar iron, copper ore, hides and
skins, pot and pearl ashes. The largest importation of
commodities of the first kind could not discourage the growth or
interfere with the sale of any part of the produce of the mother
country. By confining them to the home market, our merchants, it
was expected, would not only be enabled to buy them cheaper in
the plantations, and consequently to sell them with a better
profit at home, but to establish between the plantations and
foreign countries an advantageous carrying trade, of which Great
Britain was necessarily to be the centre or emporium, as the
European country into which those commodities were first to be
imported. The importation of commodities of the second kind might
be so managed too, it was supposed, as to interfere, not with the
sale of those of the same kind which were produced at home, but
with that of those which were imported from foreign countries;
because, by means of proper duties, they might be rendered always
somewhat dearer than the former, and yet a good deal cheaper than
the latter. By confining such commodities to the home market,
therefore, it was proposed to discourage the produce, not of
Great Britain, but of some foreign countries with which the
balance of trade was believed to be unfavourable to Great
Britain.
     The prohibition of exporting from the colonies, to any other
country but Great Britain, masts, yards, and bowsprits, tar,
pitch, and turpentine, naturally tended to lower the price of
timber in the colonies, and consequently to increase the expense
of clearing their lands, the principal obstacle to their
improvement. But about the beginning of the present century, in
1703, the pitch and tar company of Sweden endeavoured to raise
the price of their commodities to Great Britain, by prohibiting
their exportation, except in their own ships, at their own price,
and in such quantities as they thought proper. In order to
counteract this notable piece of mercantile policy, and to render
herself as much as possible independent, not only of Sweden, but
of all the other northern powers, Great Britain gave a bounty
upon the importation of naval stores from America, and the effect
of this bounty was to raise the price of timber in America much
more than the confinement to the home market could lower it; and
as both regulations were enacted at the same time, their joint
effect was rather to encourage than to discourage the clearing of
land in America.
     Though pig and bar iron too have been put among the
enumerated commodities, yet as, when imported from America, they
were exempted from considerable duties to which they are subject
when imported from any other country, the one part of the
regulation contributes more to encourage the erection of furnaces
in America than the other to discourage it. There is no
manufacture which occasions so great a consumption of wood as a
furnace, or which can contribute so much to the clearing of a
country overgrown with it.
     The tendency of some of these regulations to raise the value
of timber in America, and thereby to facilitate the clearing of
the land, was neither, perhaps, intended nor understood by the
legislature. Though their beneficial effects, however, have been
in this respect accidental, they have not upon that account been
less real.
     The most perfect freedom of trade is permitted between the
British colonies of America and the West Indies, both in the
enumerated and in the non-enumerated commodities. Those colonies
are now become so populous and thriving that each of them finds
in some of the others a great and extensive market for every part
of its produce. All of them taken together, they make a great
internal market for the produce of one another.
     The liberality of England, however, towards the trade of her
colonies has been confined chiefly to what concerns the market
for their produce, either in its rude state, or in what may be
called the very first stage of manufacture. The more advanced or
more refined manufactures even of the colony produce, the
merchants and manufacturers of Great Britain choose to reserve to
themselves, and have prevailed upon the legislature to prevent
their establishment in the colonies, sometimes by high duties,
and sometimes by absolute prohibitions.
     While, for example, Muskovado sugars from the British
plantations pay upon importation only 6s. 4d. the hundredweight;
white sugars pay L1 1s. 1d.; and refined, either double or
single, in loaves L4 2s. 5 8/20d. When those high duties were
imposed, Great Britain was the sole, and she still continues to
be the principal market to which the sugars of the British
colonies could be exported. They amounted, therefore, to a
prohibition, at first of claying or refining sugar for any
foreign market, and at present of claying or refining it for the
market, which takes off, perhaps, more than nine-tenths of the
whole produce. The manufacture of claying or refining sugar
accordingly, though it has flourished in all the sugar colonies
of France, has been little cultivated in any of those of England
except for the market of the colonies themselves. While Grenada
was in the hands of the French there was a refinery of sugar, by
claying at least, upon almost every plantation. Since it fell
into those of the English, almost all works of this kind have
been given tip, and there are at present, October 1773, I am
assured not above two or three remaining in the island. At
present, however, by an indulgence of the custom-house, clayed or
refined sugar, if reduced from loaves into powder, is commonly
imported as Muskovado.
     While Great Britain encourages in America the manufactures
of pig and bar iron, by exempting them from duties to which the
like commodities are subject when imported from any other
country, she imposes an absolute prohibition upon the erection of
steel furnaces and slitmills in any of her American plantations.
She will not suffer her colonists to work in those more refined
manufactures even for their own consumption; but insists upon
their purchasing of her merchants and manufacturers all goods of
this kind which they have occasion for.
     She prohibits the exportation from one province to another
by water, and even the carriage by land upon horseback or in a
cart, of hats, of wools and woollen goods, of the produce of
America; a regulation which effectually prevents the
establishment of any manufacture of such commodities for distant
sale, and confines the industry of her colonists in this way to
such coarse and household manufactures as a private family
commonly makes for its own use or for that of some of its
neighbours in the same province.
     To prohibit a great people, however, from making all that
they can of every part of their own produce, or from employing
their stock and industry in the way that they judge most
advantageous to themselves, is a manifest violation of the most
sacred rights of mankind. Unjust, however, as such prohibitions
may be, they have not hitherto been very hurtful to the colonies.
Land is still so cheap, and, consequently, labour so dear among
them, that they can import from the mother country almost all the
more refined or more advanced manufactures cheaper than they
could make for themselves. Though they had not, therefore, been
prohibited from establishing such manufactures, yet in their
present state of improvement a regard to their own interest
would, probably, have prevented them from doing so. In their
present state of improvement those prohibitions, perhaps, without
cramping their industry, or restraining it from any employment to
which it would have gone of its own accord, are only impertinent
badges of slavery imposed upon them, without any sufficient
reason, by the groundless jealousy of the merchants and
manufacturers of the mother country. In a more advanced state
they might be really oppressive and insupportable.
     Great Britain too, as she confines to her own market some of
the most important productions of the colonies, so in
compensation she gives to some of them an advantage in that
market, sometimes by imposing higher duties upon the like
productions when imported from other countries, and sometimes by
giving bounties upon their importation from the colonies. In the
first way she gives an advantage in the home market to the sugar,
tobacco, and iron of her own colonies, and in the second to their
raw silk, to their hemp and flax, to their indigo, to their naval
stores, and to their building timber. This second way of
encouraging the colony produce by bounties upon importation, is,
so far as I have been able to learn, peculiar to Great Britain.
The first is not. Portugal does not content herself with imposing
higher duties upon the importation of tobacco from any other
country, but prohibits it under the severest penalties.
     With regard to the importation of goods from Europe, England
has likewise dealt more liberally with her colonies than any
other nation.
     Great Britain allows a part, almost always the half,
generally a larger portion, and sometimes the whole of the duty
which is paid upon the importation of foreign goods, to be drawn
back upon their exportation to any foreign country. No
independent foreign country, it was easy to foresee, would
receive them if they came to it loaded with the heavy duties to
which almost all foreign goods are subjected on their importation
into Great Britain. Unless, therefore, some part of those duties
was drawn back upon exportation, there was an end of the carrying
trade; a trade so much favoured by the mercantile system.
     Our colonies, however, are by no means independent foreign
countries; and Great Britain having assumed to herself the
exclusive right of supplying them with all goods from Europe,
might have forced them (in the same manner as other countries
have done their colonies) to receive such goods, loaded with all
the same duties which they paid in the mother country. But, on
the contrary, till 1763, the same drawbacks were paid upon the
exportation of the greater part of foreign goods to our colonies
as to any independent foreign country. In 1763, indeed, by the
4th of George III, c. 15, this indulgence was a good deal abated,
and it was enacted, "That no part of the duty called the Old
Subsidy should be drawn back for any goods of the growth,
production, or manufacture of Europe or the East Indies, which
should be exported from this kingdom to any British colony or
plantation in America; wines, white calicoes and muslins
excepted." Before this law, many different sorts of foreign goods
might have been bought cheaper in the plantations than in the
mother country; and some may still.
     Of the greater part of the regulations concerning the colony
trade, the merchants who carry it on, it must be observed, have
been the principal advisers. We must not wonder, therefore, if,
in the greater part of them, their interest has been more
considered than either that of the colonies or that of the mother
country. In their exclusive privilege of supplying the colonies
with all the goods which they wanted from Europe, and of
purchasing all such parts of their surplus produce as could not
interfere with any of the trades which they themselves carried on
at home, the interest of the colonies was sacrificed to the
interest of those merchants. In allowing the same drawbacks upon
the re-exportation of the greater part of European and East India
goods to the colonies as upon their re-exportation to any
independent country, the interest of the mother country was
sacrificed to it, even according to the mercantile ideas of that
interest. It was for the interest of the merchants to pay as
little as possible for the foreign which they sent to the
colonies, and, consequently, to get back as much as possible of
the duties which they advanced upon their importation into Great
Britain. They might thereby be enabled to sell in the colonies
either the same quantity of goods with a greater profit, or a
greater quantity with the same profit, and, consequently, to gain
something either in the one way or the other. It was likewise for
the interest of the colonies to get all such goods as cheap and
in as great abundance as possible. But this might not always be
for the interest of the mother country. She might frequently
suffer both in her revenue, by giving back a great part of the
duties which had been paid upon the importation of such goods;
and in her manufactures, by being undersold in the colony market,
in consequence of the easy terms upon which foreign manufactures
could be carried thither by means of those drawbacks. The
progress of the linen manufacture of Great Britain, it is
commonly said, has been a good deal retarded by the drawbacks
upon the re-exportation of German linen to the American colonies.
     But though the policy of Great Britain with regard to the
trade of her colonies has been dictated by the same mercantile
spirit as that of other nations, it has, however, upon the whole,
been less illiberal and oppressive than that of any of them.
     In everything, except their foreign trade, the liberty of
the English colonists to manage their own affairs their own way
is complete. It is in every respect equal to that of their
fellow-citizens at home, and is secured in the same manner, by an
assembly of the representatives of the people, who claim the sole
right of imposing taxes for the support of the colony government.
The authority of this assembly overawes the executive power, and
neither the meanest nor the most obnoxious colonist, as long as
he obeys the law, has anything to fear from the resentment,
either of the governor or of any other civil or military officer
in the province. The colony assemblies though, like the House of
Commons in England, are not always a very equal representation of
the people, yet they approach more nearly to that character; and
as the executive power either has not the means to corrupt them,
or, on account of the support which it receives from the mother
country, is not under the necessity of doing so, they are perhaps
in general more influenced by the inclinations of their
constituents. The councils which, in the colony legislatures,
correspond to the House of Lords in Great Britain, are not
composed of an hereditary nobility. In some of the colonies, as
in three of the governments of New England, those councils are
not appointed by the king, but chosen by the representatives of
the people. In none of the English colonies is there any
hereditary nobility. In all of them, indeed, as in all other free
countries, the descendant of an old colony family is more
respected than an upstart of equal merit and fortune; but he is
only more respected, and he has no privileges by which he can be
troublesome to his neighbours. Before the commencement of the
present disturbances, the colony assemblies had not only the
legislative but a part of the executive power. In Connecticut and
Rhode Island, they elected the governor. In the other colonies
they appointed the revenue officers who collected the taxes
imposed by those respective assemblies, to whom those officers
were immediately responsible. There is more equality, therefore,
among the English colonists than among the inhabitants of the
mother country. Their manners are more republican, and their
governments, those of three of the provinces of New England in
particular, have hitherto been more republican too.
     The absolute governments of Spain, Portugal, and France, on
the contrary, take place in their colonies; and the discretionary
powers which such governments commonly delegate to all their
inferior officers are, on account of the great distance,
naturally exercised there with more than ordinary violence. Under
all absolute governments there is more liberty in the capital
than in any other part of the country. The sovereign himself can
never have either interest or inclination to pervert the order of
justice, or to oppress the great body of the people. In the
capital his presence overawes more or less all his inferior
officers, who in the remoter provinces, from whence the
complaints of the people are less likely to reach him, can
exercise their tyranny with much more safety. But the European
colonies in America are more remote than the most distant
provinces of the greatest empires which had ever been known
before. The government of the English colonies is perhaps the
only one which, since the world began, could give perfect
security to the inhabitants of so very distant a province. The
administration of the French colonies, however, has always been
conducted with more gentleness and moderation than that of the
Spanish and Portugese. This superiority of conduct is suitable
both to the character of the French nation, and to what forms the
character of every nation, the nature of their government, which
though arbitrary and violent in comparison with that of Great
Britain, is legal and free in comparison with those of Spain and
Portugal.
     It is in the progress of the North American colonies,
however, that the superiority of the English policy chiefly
appears. The progress of the sugar colonies of France has been at
least equal, perhaps superior, to that of the greater part of
those of England, and yet the sugar colonies of England enjoy a
free government nearly of the same kind with that which takes
place in her colonies of North America. But the sugar colonies of
France are not discouraged, like those of England, from refining
their own sugar; and, what is of still greater importance, the
genius of their government naturally introduces a better
management of their negro slaves.
     In all European colonies the culture of the sugar-cane is
carried on by negro slaves. The constitution of those who have
been born in the temperate climate of Europe could not, it is
supposed, support the labour of digging the ground under the
burning sun of the West Indies; and the culture of the sugarcane,
as it is managed at present, is all hand labour, though, in the
opinion of many, the drill plough might be introduced into it
with great advantage. But, as the profit and success of the
cultivation which is carried on by means of cattle, depend very
much upon the good management of those cattle, so the profit and
success of that which is carried on by slaves must depend equally
upon the good management of those slaves; and in the good
management of their slaves the French planters, I think it is
generally allowed, are superior to the English. The law, so far
as it gives some weak protection to the slave against the
violence of his master, is likely to be better executed in a
colony where the government is in a great measure arbitrary than
in one where it is altogether free. In every country where the
unfortunate law of slavery is established, the magistrate, when
he protects the slave, intermeddles in some measure in the
management of the private property of the master; and, in a free
country, where the master is perhaps either a member of the
colony assembly, or an elector of such a member, he dare not do
this but with the greatest caution and circumspection. The
respect which he is obliged to pay to the master renders it more
difficult for him to protect the slave. But in a country where
the government is in a great measure arbitrary, where it is usual
for the magistrate to intermeddle even in the management of the
private property of individuals, and to send them, perhaps, a
lettre de cachet if they do not manage it according to his
liking, it is much easier for him to give some protection to the
slave; and common humanity naturally disposes him to do so. The
protection of the magistrate renders the slave less contemptible
in the eyes of his master, who is thereby induced to consider him
with more regard, and to treat him with more gentleness. Gentle
usage renders the slave not only more faithful, but more
intelligent, and therefore, upon a double account, more useful.
He approaches more to the condition of a free servant, and may
possess some degree of integrity and attachment to his master's
interest, virtues which frequently belong to free servants, but
which never can belong to a slave who is treated as slaves
commonly are in countries where the master is perfectly free and
secure.
     That the condition of a slave is better under an arbitrary
than under a free government is, I believe, supported by the
history of all ages and nations. In the Roman history, the first
time we read of the magistrate interposing to protect the slave
from the violence of his master is under the emperors. When
Vedius Pollio, in the presence of Augustus, ordered one of his
slaves, who had committed a slight fault, to be cut into pieces
and thrown into his fish pond in order to feed his fishes, the
emperor commanded him, with indignation, to emancipate
immediately, not only that slave, but all the others that
belonged to him. Under the republic no magistrate could have had
authority enough to protect the slave, much less to punish the
master.
     The stock, it is to be observed, which has improved the
sugar colonies of France, particularly the great colony of St.
Domingo, has been raised almost entirely from the gradual
improvement and cultivation of those colonies. It has been almost
altogether the produce of the soil and of the industry of the
colonies, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of that
produce gradually accumulated by good management, and employed in
raising a still greater produce. But the stock which has improved
and cultivated the sugar colonies of England has, a great part of
it, been sent out from England, and has by no means been
altogether the produce of the soil and industry of the colonists.
The prosperity of the English sugar colonies has been, in a great
measure, owing to the great riches of England, of which a part
has overflowed, if one may say so, upon those colonies. But the
prosperity of the sugar colonies of France has been entirely
owing to the good conduct of the colonists, which must therefore
have had some superiority over that of the English; and this
superiority has been remarked in nothing so much as in the good
management of their slaves.
     Such have been the general outlines of the policy of the
different European nations with regard to their colonies.
     The policy of Europe, therefore, has very little to boast
of, either in the original establishment or, so far as concerns
their internal government, in the subsequent prosperity of the
colonies of America.
     Folly and injustice seem to have been the principles which
presided over and directed the first project of establishing
those colonies; the folly of hunting after gold and silver mines,
and the injustice of coveting the possession of a country whose
harmless natives, far from having ever injured the people of
Europe, had received the first adventurers with every mark of
kindness and hospitality.
     The adventurers, indeed, who formed some of the later
establishments, joined to the chimerical project of finding gold
and silver mines other motives more reasonable and more laudable;
but even these motives do very little honour to the policy of
Europe.
     The English Puritans, restrained at home, fled for freedom
to America, and established there the four governments of New
England. The English Catholics, treated with much greater
injustice, established that of Maryland; the Quakers, that of
Pennsylvania. The Portuguese Jews, persecuted by the Inquisition,
stripped of their fortunes, and banished to Brazil, introduced by
their example some sort of order and industry among the
transported felons and strumpets by whom that colony was
originally peopled, and taught them the culture of the
sugar-cane. Upon all these different occasions it was not the
wisdom and policy, but the disorder and injustice of the European
governments which peopled and cultivated America.
     In effectuating some of the most important of these
establishments, the different governments of Europe had as little
merit as in projecting them. The conquest of Mexico was the
project, not of the council of Spain, but of a governor of Cuba;
and it was effectuated by the spirit of the bold adventurer to
whom it was entrusted, in spite of everything which that
governor, who soon repented of having trusted such a person,
could do to thwart it. The conquerors of Chili and Peru, and of
almost all the other Spanish settlements upon the continent of
America, carried out with them no other public encouragement, but
a general permission to make settlements and conquests in the
name of the king of Spain. Those adventures were all at the
private risk and expense of the adventurers. The government of
Spain contributed scarce anything to any of them. That of England
contributed as little towards effectuating the establishment of
some of its most important colonies in North America.
     When those establishments were effectuated, and had become
so considerable as to attract the attention of the mother
country, the first regulations which she made with regard to them
had always in view to secure to herself the monopoly of their
commerce; to confine their market, and to enlarge her own at
their expense, and, consequently, rather to damp and discourage
than to quicken and forward the course of their prosperity. In
the different ways in which this monopoly has been exercised
consists one of the most essential differences in the policy of
the different European nations with regard to their colonies. The
best of them all, that of England, is only somewhat less
illiberal and oppressive than that of any of the rest.
     In what way, therefore, has the policy of Europe contributed
either to the first establishment, or to the present grandeur of
the colonies of America? In one way, and in one way only, it has
contributed a good deal. Magna virum Mater! It bred and formed
the men who were capable of achieving such great actions, and of
laying the foundation of so great an empire; and there is no
other quarter of the world of which the policy is capable of
forming, or has ever actually and in fact formed such men. The
colonies owe to the policy of Europe the education and great
views of their active and enterprising founders; and some of the
greatest and most important of them, so far as concerns their
internal government, owe to it scarce anything else.
                               PART 3
              Of the Advantages which Europe has derived
                    from the Discovery of America,
             and from that of a Passage to the East Indies
                       by the Cape of Good Hope 
     SUCH are the advantages which the colonies of America have
derived from the policy of Europe.
     What are those which Europe has derived from the discovery
and colonization of America?
     Those advantages may be divided, first, into the general
advantages which Europe, considered as one great country, has
derived from those great events; and, secondly, into the
particular advantages which each colonizing country has derived
from the colonies which particularly belong to it, in consequence
of the authority or dominion which it exercises over them.
     The general advantages which Europe, considered as one great
country, has derived from the discovery and colonisation of
America, consist, first, in the increase of its enjoyments; and,
secondly, in the augmentation of its industry.
     The surplus produce of America, imported into Europe,
furnishes the inhabitants of this great continent with a variety
of commodities which they could not otherwise have possessed;
some for conveniency and use, some for pleasure, and some for
ornament, and thereby contributes to increase their enjoyments.
     The discovery and colonization of America, it will readily
be allowed, have contributed to augment the industry, first, of
all the countries which trade to it directly, such as Spain,
Portugal, France, and England; and, secondly, of all those which,
without trading to it directly, send, through the medium of other
countries, goods to it of their own produce; such as Austrian
Flanders, and some provinces of Germany, which, through the
medium of the countries before mentioned, send to it a
considerable quantity of linen and other goods. All such
countries have evidently gained a more extensive market for their
surplus produce, and must consequently have been encouraged to
increase its quantity.
     But that those great events should likewise have contributed
to encourage the industry of countries, such as Hungary and
Poland, which may never, perhaps, have sent a single commodity of
their own produce to America, is not, perhaps, altogether so
evident. That those events have done so, however, cannot be
doubted. Some part of the produce of America is consumed in
Hungary and Poland, and there is some demand there for the sugar,
chocolate, and tobacco of that new quarter of the world. But
those commodities must be purchased with something which is
either the produce of the industry of Hungary and Poland, or with
something which had been purchased with some part of that
produce. Those commodities of America are new values, new
equivalents, introduced into Hungary and Poland to be exchanged
there for the surplus produce of those countries. By being
carried thither they create a new and more extensive market for
that surplus produce. They raise its value, and thereby
contribute to encourage its increase. Though no part of it may
ever be carried to America, it may be carried to other countries
which purchase it with a part of their share of the surplus
produce of America; and it may find a market by means of the
circulation of that trade which was originally put into motion by
the surplus produce of America.
     Those great events may even have contributed to increase the
enjoyments, and to augment the industry of countries which not
only never sent any commodities to America, but never received
any from it. Even such countries may have received a greater
abundance of other commodities from countries of which the
surplus produce had been augmented by means of the American
trade. This greater abundance, as it must necessarily have
increased their enjoyments, so it must likewise have augmented
their industry. A greater number of new equivalents of some kind
or other must have been presented to them to be exchanged for the
surplus produce of that industry. A more extensive market must
have been created for that surplus produce so as to raise its
value, and thereby encourage its increase. The mass of
commodities annually thrown into the great circle of European
commerce, and by its various revolutions annually distributed
among all the different nations comprehended within it, must have
been augmented by the whole surplus produce of America. A greater
share of this greater mass, therefore, is likely to have fallen
to each of those nations, to have increased their enjoyments, and
augmented their industry.
     The exclusive trade of the mother countries tends to
diminish, or, at least, to keep down below what they would
otherwise rise to, both the enjoyments and industry of all those
nations in general, and of the American colonies in particular.
It is a dead weight upon the action of one of the great springs
which puts into motion a great part of the business of mankind.
By rendering the colony produce dearer in all other countries, it
lessens its consumption, and thereby cramps the industry of the
colonies, and both the enjoyments and the industry of all other
countries, which both enjoy less when they pay more for what they
enjoy, and produce less when they get less for what they produce.
By rendering the produce of all other countries dearer in the
colonies, it cramps, in the same manner the industry of all other
countries, and both the enjoyments and the industry of the
colonies. It is a clog which, for the supposed benefit of some
particular countries, embarrasses the pleasures and encumbers the
industry of all other countries; but of the colonies more than of
any other. It not only excludes, as much as possible, all other
countries from one particular market; but it confines, as much as
Possible, the colonies to one particular market; and the
difference is very great between being excluded from one
particular market, when all others are open, and being confined
to one particular market, when all others are shut up. The
surplus produce of the colonies, however, is the original source
of all that increase of enjoyments and industry which Europe
derives from the discovery and colonization of America; and the
exclusive trade of the mother countries tends to render this
source much less abundant than it otherwise would be.
     The particular advantages which each colonizing country
derives from the colonies which particularly belong to it are of
two different kinds; first, those common advantages which every
empire derives from the provinces subject to its dominion; and,
secondly, those peculiar advantages which are supposed to result
from provinces of so very peculiar a nature as the European
colonies of America.
     The common advantages which every empire derives from the
provinces subject to its dominion consist, first, in the military
force which they furnish for its defence; and, secondly, in the
revenue which they furnish for the support of its civil
government. The Roman colones furnished occasionally both the one
and the other. The Greek colonies, sometimes, furnished a
military force, but seldom any revenue. They seldom acknowledged
themselves subject to the dominion of the mother city. They were
generally her allies in war, but very seldom her subjects in
peace.
     The European colonies of America have never yet furnished
any military force for the defence of the mother country. Their
military force has never yet been sufficient for their own
defence; and in the different wars in which the mother countries
have been engaged, the defence of their colonies has generally
occasioned a very considerable distraction of the military force
of those countries. In this respect, therefore, all the European
colonies have, without exception, been a cause rather of weakness
than of strength to their respective mother countries.
     The colonies of Spain and Portugal only have contributed any
revenue towards the defence of the mother country, or the support
of her civil government. The taxes which have been levied upon
those of other European nations, upon those of England in
particular, have seldom been equal to the expense laid out upon
them in time of peace, and never sufficient to defray that which
they occasioned in time of war. Such colonies, therefore, have
been a source of expense and not of revenue to their respective
mother countries.
     The advantages of such colonies to their respective mother
countries consist altogether in those peculiar advantages which
are supposed to result from provinces of so very peculiar a
nature as the European colonies of America; and the exclusive
trade, it is acknowledged, is the sole source of all those
peculiar advantages.
     In consequence of this exclusive trade, all that part of the
surplus produce of the English colonies, for example, which
consists in what are called enumerated commodities, can be sent
to no other country but England. Other countries must afterwards
buy it of her. It must be cheaper therefore in England than it
can be in any other country, and must contribute more to increase
the enjoyments of England than those of any other country. It
must likewise contribute more to encourage her industry. For all
those parts of her own surplus produce which England exchanges
for those enumerated commodities, she must get a better price
than any other countries can get for the like parts of theirs,
when they exchange them for the same commodities. The
manufacturers of England, for example, will purchase a greater
quantity of the sugar and tobacco of her own colonies than the
like manufactures of other countries can purchase of that sugar
and tobacco. So far, therefore, as the manufactures of England
and those of other countries are both to be exchanged for the
sugar and tobacco of the English colonies, this superiority of
price gives an encouragement to the former beyond what the latter
can in these circumstances enjoy. The exclusive trade of the
colonies, therefore, as it diminishes, or at least keeps down
below what they would otherwise rise to, both the enjoyments and
the industry of the countries which do not possess it; so it
gives an evident advantage to the countries which do possess it
over those other countries.
     This advantage, however, will perhaps be found to be rather
what may be called a relative than an absolute advantage; and to
give a superiority to the country which enjoys it rather by
depressing the industry and produce of other countries than by
raising those of that particular country above what they would
naturally rise to in the case of a free trade.
     The tobacco of Maryland and Virginia, for example, by means
of the monopoly which England enjoys of it, certainly comes
cheaper to England than it can do to France, to whom England
commonly sells a considerable part of it. But had France, and all
other European countries been, at all times, allowed a free trade
to Maryland and Virginia, the tobacco of those colonies might, by
this time, have come cheaper than it actually does, not only to
all those other countries, but likewise to England. The produce
of tobacco, in consequence of a market so much more extensive
than any which it has hitherto enjoyed, might, and probably
would, by this time, have been so much increased as to reduce the
profits of a tobacco plantation to their natural level with those
of a corn plantation, which, it is supposed, they are still
somewhat above. The price of tobacco might, and probably would,
by this time, have fallen somewhat lower than it is at present.
An equal quantity of the commodities either of England or of
those other countries might have purchased in Maryland and
Virginia a greater quantity of tobacco than it can do at present,
and consequently have been sold there for so much a better price.
So far as that weed, therefore, can, by its cheapness and
abundance, increase the enjoyments or augment the industry either
of England or of any other country, it would, probably, in the
case of a free trade, have produced both these effects in
somewhat a greater degree than it can do at present. England,
indeed, would not in this case have had any advantage over other
countries. She might have bought the tobacco of her colonies
somewhat cheaper, and consequently have sold some of her own
commodities somewhat dearer than she actually does. But she could
neither have bought the one cheaper nor sold the other dearer
than any other country might have done. She might, perhaps have
gained an absolute, but she would certainly have lost a relative
advantage.
     In order, however, to obtain this relative advantage in the
colony trade, in order to execute the invidious and malignant
project of excluding as much as possible other nations from any
share in it, England, there are very probable reasons for
believing, has not only sacrificed a part of the absolute
advantage which she, as well as every other nation, might have
derived from that trade, but has subjected herself both to an
absolute and to a relative disadvantage in almost every other
branch of trade.
     When, by the Act of Navigation, England assumed to herself
the monopoly of the colony trade, the foreign capitals which had
before been employed in it were necessarily withdrawn from it.
The English capital, which had before carried on but a part of
it, was now to carry on the whole. The capital which had before
supplied the colonies with but a part of the goods which they
wanted from Europe was now all that was employed to supply them
with the whole. But it could not supply them with the whole, and
the goods with which it did supply them were necessarily sold
very dear. The capital which had before bought but a part of the
surplus produce of the colonies, was now all that was employed to
buy the whole. But it could not buy the whole at anything near
the old price, and, therefore, whatever it did buy it necessarily
bought very cheap. But in an employment of capital in which the
merchant sold very dear and bought very cheap, the profit must
have been very great, and much above the ordinary level of profit
in other branches of trade. This superiority of profit in the
colony trade could not fail to draw from other branches of trade
a part of the capital which had before been employed in them. But
this revulsion of capital, as it must have gradually increased
the competition of capitals in the colony trade, so it must have
gradually diminished that competition in all those other branches
of trade; as it must have gradually lowered the profits of the
one, so it must have gradually raised those of the other, till
the profits of all came to a new level, different from and
somewhat higher than that at which they had been before.
     This double effect of drawing capital from all other trades,
and of raising the rate of profit somewhat higher than it
otherwise would have been in all trades, was not only produced by
this monopoly upon its first establishment, but has continued to
be produced by it ever since.
     First, this monopoly has been continually drawing capital
from all other trades to be employed in that of the colonies.
     Though the wealth of Great Britain has increased very much
since the establishment of the Act of Navigation, it certainly
has not increased in the same proportion as that of the colonies.
But the foreign trade of every country naturally increases in
proportion to its wealth, its surplus produce in proportion to
its whole produce; and Great Britain having engrossed to herself
almost the whole of what may be called the foreign trade of the
colonies, and her capital not having increased in the same
proportion as the extent of that trade, she could not carry it on
without continually withdrawing from other branches of trade some
part of the capital which had before been employed in them as
well as withholding from them a great deal more which would
otherwise have gone to them. Since the establishment of the Act
of Navigation, accordingly, the colony trade has been continually
increasing, while many other branches of foreign trade,
particularly of that to other parts of Europe, have been
continually decaying. Our manufactures for foreign sale, instead
of being suited, as before the Act of Navigation, to the
neighbouring market of Europe, or to the more distant one of the
countries which lie round the Mediterranean Sea, have, the
greater part of them, been accommodated to the still more distant
one of the colonies, to the market in which they have the
monopoly rather than to that in which they have many competitors.
The causes of decay in other branches of foreign trade, which, by
Sir Matthew Decker and other writers, have been sought for in the
excess and improper mode of taxation, in the high price of
labour, in the increase of luxury, etc., may all be found in the
overgrowth of the colony trade. The mercantile capital of Great
Britain, though very great, yet not being infinite, and though
greatly increased since the Act of Navigation, yet not being
increased in the same proportion as the colony trade, that trade
could not possibly be carried on without withdrawing some part of
that capital from other branches of trade, nor consequently
without some decay of those other branches.
     England, it must be observed, was a great trading country,
her mercantile capital was very great and likely to become still
greater and greater every day, not only before the Act of
Navigation had established the monopoly of the colony trade, but
before that trade was very considerable. In the Dutch war, during
the government of Cromwell, her navy was superior to that of
Holland; and in that which broke out in the beginning of the
reign of Charles II, it was at last equal, perhaps superior, to
the united navies of France and Holland. Its superiority,
perhaps, would scarce appear greater in the present times; at
least if the Dutch navy was to bear the same proportion to the
Dutch commerce now which it did then. But this great naval power
could not, in either of those wars, be owing to the Act of
Navigation. During the first of them the plan of that act had
been but just formed; and though before the breaking out of the
second it had been fully enacted by legal authority, yet no part
of it could have had time to produce any considerable effect, and
least of all that part which established the exclusive trade to
the colonies. Both the colonies and their trade were
inconsiderable then in comparison of what they are now. The
island of Jamaica was an unwholesome desert, little inhabited,
and less cultivated. New York and New Jersey were in the
possession of the Dutch: the half of St. Christopher's in that of
the French. The island of Antigua, the two Carolinas,
Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Nova Scotia were not planted.
Virginia, Maryland, and New England were planted; and though they
were very thriving colonies, yet there was not, perhaps, at that
time, either in Europe or America, a single person who foresaw or
even suspected the rapid progress which they have since made in
wealth, population, and improvement. The island of Barbadoes, in
short, was the only British colony of any consequence of which
the condition at that time bore any resemblance to what it is at
present. The trade of the colonies, of which England, even for
some time after the Act of Navigation, enjoyed but a part (for
the Act of Navigation was not very strictly executed till several
years after it was enacted), could not at that time be the cause
of the great trade of England, nor of the great naval power which
was supported by that trade. The trade which at that time
supported that great naval power was the trade of Europe, and of
the countries which lie round the Mediterranean Sea. But the
share which Great Britain at present enjoys of that trade could
not support any such great naval power. Had the growing trade of
the colonies been left free to all nations, whatever share of it
might have fallen to Great Britain, and a very considerable share
would probably have fallen to her, must have been all an addition
to this great trade of which she was before in possession. In
consequence of the monopoly, the increase of the colony trade has
not so much occasioned an addition to the trade which Great
Britain had before as a total change in its direction.
     Secondly, this monopoly has necessarily contributed to keep
up the rate of profit in all the different branches of British
trade higher than it naturally would have been had all nations
been allowed a free trade to the British colonies.
     The monopoly of the colony trade, as it necessarily drew
towards that trade a greater proportion of the capital of Great
Britain than what would have gone to it of its own accord; so by
the expulsion of all foreign capitals it necessarily reduced the
whole quantity of capital employed in that trade below what it
naturally would have been in the case of a free trade. But, by
lessening the competition of capitals in that branch of trade, it
necessarily raised the rate of profit in that branch. By
lessening, too, the competition of British capitals in all other
branches of trade, it necessarily raised the rate of British
profit in all those other branches. Whatever may have been, at
any particular period, since the establishment of the Act of
Navigation, the state or extent of the mercantile capital of
Great Britain, the monopoly of the colony trade must, during the
continuance of that state, have raised the ordinary rate of
British profit higher than it otherwise would have been both in
that and in all the other branches of British trade. If, since
the establishment of the Act of Navigation, the ordinary rate of
British profit has fallen considerably, as it certainly has, it
must have fallen still lower, had not the monopoly established by
that act contributed to keep it up.
     But whatever raises in any country the ordinary rate of
profit higher than it otherwise would be, necessarily subjects
that country both to an absolute and to a relative disadvantage
in every branch of trade of which she has not the monopoly.
     It subjects her to an absolute disadvantage; because in such
branches of trade her merchants cannot get this greater profit
without selling dearer than they otherwise would do both the
goods of foreign countries which they import into their own, and
the goods of their own country which they export to foreign
countries. Their own country must both buy dearer and sell
dearer; must both buy less and sell less; must both enjoy less
and produce less, than she otherwise would do.
     It subjects her to a relative disadvantage; because in such
branches of trade it sets other countries which are not subject
to the same absolute disadvantage either more above her or less
below her than they otherwise would be. It enables them both to
enjoy more and to produce more in proportion to what she enjoys
and produces. It renders their superiority greater or their
inferiority less than it otherwise would be. By raising the price
of her produce above what it otherwise would be, it enables the
merchants of other countries to undersell her in foreign markets,
and thereby to jostle her out of almost all those branches of
trade, of which she has not the monopoly.
     Our merchants frequently complain of the high wages of
British labour as the cause of their manufactures being undersold
in foreign markets, but they are silent about the high profits of
stock. They complain of the extravagant gain of other people, but
they say nothing of their own. The high profits of British stock,
however, may contribute towards raising the price of British
manufactures in many cases as much, and in some perhaps more,
than the high wages of British labour.
     It is in this manner that the capital of Great Britain, one
may justly say, has partly been drawn and partly been driven from
the greater part of the different branches of trade of which she
has not the monopoly; from the trade of Europe in particular, and
from that of the countries which lie round the Mediterranean Sea.
     It has partly been drawn from those branches of trade by the
attraction of superior profit in the colony trade in consequence
of the continual increase of that trade, and of the continual
insufficiency of the capital which had carried it on one year to
carry it on the next.
     It has partly been driven from them by the advantage which
the high rate of profit, established in Great Britain, gives to
other countries in all the different branches of trade of which
Great Britain has not the monopoly.
     As the monopoly of the colony trade has drawn from those
other branches a part of the British capital which would
otherwise have been employed in them, so it has forced into them
many foreign capitals which would never have gone to them had
they not been expelled from the colony trade. In those other
branches of trade it has diminished the competition of British
capital, and thereby raised the rate of British profit higher
than it otherwise would have been. On the contrary, it has
increased the competition of foreign capitals, and thereby sunk
the rate of foreign profit lower than it otherwise would have
been. Both in the one way and in the other it must evidently have
subjected Great Britain to a relative disadvantage in all those
other branches of trade.
     The colony trade, however, it may perhaps be said, is more
advantageous to Great Britain than any other; and the monopoly,
by forcing into that trade a greater proportion of the capital of
Great Britain than what would otherwise have gone to it, has
turned that capital into an employment more advantageous to the
country than any other which it could have found.
     The most advantageous employment of any capital to the
country to which it belongs is that which maintains there the
greatest quantity of productive labour, and increases the most
the annual produce of the land and labour of that country. But
the quantity of productive labour which any capital employed in
the foreign trade of consumption can maintain is exactly in
proportion, it has been shown in the second book, to the
frequency of its returns. A capital of a thousand pounds, for
example, employed in a foreign trade of consumption, of which the
returns are made regularly once in the year, can keep in constant
employment, in the country to which it belongs, a quantity of
productive labour equal to what a thousand pounds can maintain
there for a year. If the returns are made twice or thrice in the
year, it can keep in constant employment a quantity of productive
labour equal to what two or three thousand pounds can maintain
there for a year. A foreign trade of consumption carried on with
a neighbouring country is, upon this account, in general more
advantageous than one carried on with a distant country; and for
the same reason a direct foreign trade of consumption, as it has
likewise been shown in the second book, is in general more
advantageous than a round-about one.
     But the monopoly of the colony trade, so far as it has
operated upon the employment of the capital of Great Britain, has
in all cases forced some part of it from a foreign trade of
consumption carried on with a neighbouring, to one carried on
with a more distant country, and in many cases from a direct
foreign trade of consumption to a round-about one.
     First, the monopoly of the colony trade has in all cases
forced some part of the capital of Great Britain from a foreign
trade of consumption carried on with a neighbouring to one
carried on with a more distant country.
     It has, in all cases, forced some part of that capital from
the trade with Europe, and with the countries which lie round the
Mediterranean Sea, to that with the more distant regions of
America and the West Indies, from which the returns are
necessarily less frequent, not only on account of the greater
distance, but on account of the peculiar circumstances of those
countries. New colonies, it has already been observed, are always
understocked. Their capital is always much less than what they
could employ with great profit and advantage in the improvement
and cultivation of their land. They have a constant demand,
therefore, for more capital than they have of their own; and, in
order to supply the deficiency of their own, they endeavour to
borrow as much as they can of the mother country, to whom they
are, therefore, always in debt. The most common way in which the
colonists contract this debt is not by borrowing upon bond of the
rich people of the mother country, though they sometimes do this
too, but by running as much in arrear to their correspondents,
who supply them with goods from Europe, as those correspondents
will allow them. Their annual returns frequently do not amount to
more than a third, and sometimes not to so great a proportion of
what they owe. The whole capital, therefore, which their
correspondents advance to them is seldom returned to Britain in
less than three, and sometimes not in less than four or five
years. But a British capital of a thousand pounds, for example,
which is returned to Great Britain only once in five years, can
keep in constant employment only one-fifth part of the British
industry which it could maintain if the whole was returned once
in the year; and, instead of the quantity of industry which a
thousand pounds could maintain for a year, can keep in constant
employment the quantity only which two hundred pounds can
maintain for a year. The planter, no doubt, by the high price
which he pays for the goods from Europe, by the interest upon the
bills which he grants at distant dates, and by the commission
upon the renewal of those which he grants at near dates, makes
up, and probably more than makes up, all the loss which his
correspondent can sustain by this delay. But though he may make
up the loss of his correspondent, he cannot make up that of Great
Britain. In a trade of which the returns are very distant, the
profit of the merchant may be as great or greater than in one in
which they are very frequent and near; but the advantage of the
country in which he resides, the quantity of productive labour
constantly maintained there, the annual produce of the land and
labour must always be much less. That the returns of the trade to
America, and still more those of that to the West Indies are, in
general, not only more distant but more irregular, and more
uncertain too, than those of the trade to any part of Europe, or
even of the countries which lie round the Mediterranean Sea, will
readily be allowed, I imagine, by everybody who has any
experience of those different branches of trade.
     Secondly, the monopoly of the colony trade has, in many
cases, forced some part of the capital of Great Britain from a
direct foreign trade of consumption into a round-about one.
     Among the enumerated commodities which can be sent to no
other market but Great Britain, there are several of which the
quantity exceeds very much the consumption of Great Britain, and
of which a part, therefore, must be exported to other countries.
But this cannot be done without forcing some part of the capital
of Great Britain into a round-about foreign trade of consumption.
Maryland and Virginia, for example, send annually to Great
Britain upwards of ninety-six thousand hogsheads of tobacco, and
the consumption of Great Britain is said not to exceed fourteen
thousand. Upwards of eighty-two thousand hogsheads, therefore,
must be exported to other countries, to France, to Holland, and
to the countries which lie round the Baltic and Mediterranean
Seas. But that part of the capital of Great Britain which brings
those eighty-two thousand hogsheads to Great Britain, which
re-exports them from thence to those other countries, and which
brings back from those other countries to Great Britain either
goods or money in return, is employed in a round-about foreign
trade of consumption; and is necessarily forced into this
employment in order to dispose of this great surplus. If we would
compute in how many years the whole of this capital is likely to
come back to Great Britain, we must add to the distance of the
American returns that of the returns from those other countries.
If, in the direct foreign trade of consumption which we carry on
with America, the whole capital employed frequently does not come
back in less than three or four years, the whole capital employed
in this round-about one is not likely to come back in less than
four or five. If the one can keep in constant employment but a
third or a fourth part of the domestic industry which could be
maintained by a capital returned once in the year, the other can
keep in constant employment but a fourth or fifth part of that
industry. At some of the out-ports a credit is commonly given to
those foreign correspondents to whom they export their tobacco.
At the port of London, indeed, it is commonly sold for ready
money. The rule is, Weigh and pay. At the port of London,
therefore, the final returns of the whole round-about trade are
more distant than the returns from America by the time only which
the goods may lie unsold in the warehouse; where, however, they
may sometimes lie long enough. But had not the colonies been
confined to the market of Great Britain for the sale of their
tobacco, very little more of it would probably have come to us
than what was necessary for the home consumption. The goods which
Great Britain purchases at present for her own consumption with
the great surplus of tobacco which she exports to other
countries, she would in this case probably have purchased with
the immediate produce of her own industry, or with some part of
her own manufactures. That produce, those manufactures, instead
of being almost entirely suited to one great market, as at
present, would probably have been fitted to a great number of
smaller markets. Instead of one great round-about foreign trade
of consumption, Great Britain would probably have carried on a
great number of small direct foreign trades of the same kind. On
account of the frequency of the returns, a part, and probably but
a small part; perhaps not above a third or a fourth of the
capital which at present carries on this great round-about trade
might have been sufficient to carry on all those small direct
ones, might have kept in constant employment an equal quantity of
British industry, and have equally supported the annual produce
of the land and labour of Great Britain. All the purposes of this
trade being, in this manner, answered by a much smaller capital,
there would have been a large spare capital to apply to other
purposes: to improve the lands, to increase the manufactures, and
to extend the commerce of Great Britain; to come into competition
at least with the other British capitals employed in all those
different ways, to reduce the rate of profit in them all, and
thereby to give to Great Britain, in all of them, a superiority
over other countries still greater than what she at present
enjoys.
     The monopoly of the colony trade, too, has forced some part
of the capital of Great Britain from all foreign trade of
consumption to a carrying trade; and consequently, from
supporting more or less the industry of Great Britain, to be
employed altogether in supporting partly that of the colonies and
partly that of some other countries.
     The goods, for example, which are annually purchased with
the great surplus of eighty-two thousand hogsheads of tobacco
annually re-exported from Great Britain are not all consumed in
Great Britain. Part of them, linen from Germany and Holland, for
example, is returned to the colonies for their particular
consumption. But that part of the capital of Great Britain which
buys the tobacco with which this linen is afterwards bought is
necessarily withdrawn from supporting the industry of Great
Britain, to be employed altogether in supporting, partly that of
the colonies, and partly that of the particular countries who pay
for this tobacco with the produce of their own industry.
     The monopoly of the colony trade besides, by forcing towards
it a much greater proportion of the capital of Great Britain than
what would naturally have gone to it, seems to have broken
altogether that natural balance which would otherwise have taken
place among all the different branches of British industry. The
industry of Great Britain, instead of being accommodated to a
great number of small markets, has been principally suited to one
great market. Her commerce, instead of running in a great number
of small channels, has been taught to run principally in one
great channel. But the whole system of her industry and commerce
has thereby been rendered less secure, the whole state of her
body politic less healthful than it otherwise would have been. In
her present condition, Great Britain resembles one of those
unwholesome bodies in which some of the vital parts are
overgrown, and which, upon that account, are liable to many
dangerous disorders scarce incident to those in which all the
parts are more properly proportioned. A small stop in that great
blood-vessel, which has been artificially swelled beyond its
natural dimensions, and through which an unnatural proportion of
the industry and commerce of the country has been forced to
circulate, is very likely to bring on the most dangerous
disorders upon the whole body politic. The expectation of a
rupture with the colonies, accordingly, has struck the people of
Great Britain with more terror than they ever felt for a Spanish
armada, or a French invasion. It was this terror, whether well or
ill grounded, which rendered the repeal of the Stamp Act, among
the merchants at least, a popular measure. In the total exclusion
from the colony market, was it to last only for a few years, the
greater part of our merchants used to fancy that they foresaw an
entire stop to their trade; the greater part of our master
manufacturers, the entire ruin of their business; and the greater
part of our workmen, an end of their employment. A rupture with
any of our neighbours upon the continent, though likely, too, to
occasion some stop or interruption in the employments of some of
all these different orders of people, is foreseen, however,
without any such general emotion. The blood, of which the
circulation is stopped in some of the smaller vessels, easily
disgorges itself into the greater without occasioning any
dangerous disorder; but, when it is stopped in any of the greater
vessels, convulsions, apoplexy, or death, are the immediate and
unavoidable consequences. If but one of those overgrown
manufactures, which, by means either of bounties or of the
monopoly of the home and colony markets, have been artificially
raised up to an unnatural height, finds some small stop or
interruption in its employment, it frequently occasions a mutiny
and disorder alarming to government, and embarrassing even to the
deliberations of the legislature. How great, therefore, would be
the disorder and confusion, it was thought, which must
necessarily be occasioned by a sudden and entire stop in the
employment of so great a proportion of our principal
manufacturers.
     Some moderate and gradual relaxation of the laws which give
to Great Britain the exclusive trade to the colonies, till it is
rendered in a great measure free, seems to be the only expedient
which can, in all future times, deliver her from this danger,
which can enable her or even force her to withdraw some part of
her capital from this overgrown employment, and to turn it,
though with less profit, towards other employments; and which, by
gradually diminishing one branch of her industry and gradually
increasing all the rest, can by degrees restore all the different
branches of it to that natural, healthful, and proper proportion
which perfect liberty necessarily establishes, and which perfect
liberty can alone preserve. To open the colony trade all at once
to all nations might not only occasion some transitory
inconveniency, but a great permanent loss to the greater part of
those whose industry or capital is at present engaged in it. The
sudden loss of the employment even of the ships which import the
eighty-two thousand hogsheads of tobacco, which are over and
above the consumption of Great Britain, might alone be felt very
sensibly. Such are the unfortunate effects of all the regulations
of the mercantile system! They not only introduce very dangerous
disorders into the state of the body politic, but disorders which
it is often difficult to remedy, without occasioning for a time
at least, still greater disorders. In what manner, therefore, the
colony trade ought gradually to be opened; what are the
restraints which ought first, and what are those which ought last
to be taken away; or in what manner the natural system of perfect
liberty and justice ought gradually to be restored, we must leave
to the wisdom of future statesmen and legislators to determine.
     Five different events, unforeseen and unthought of, have
very fortunately concurred to hinder Great Britain from feeling,
so sensibly as it was generally expected she would, the total
exclusion which has now taken place for more than a year (from
the first of December, 1774) from a very important branch of the
colony trade, that of the twelve associated provinces of North
America. First, those colonies, in preparing themselves for their
non-importation agreement, drained Great Britain completely of
all the commodities which were fit for their market; secondly,
the extraordinary demand of the Spanish Flota has, this year,
drained Germany and the North of many commodities, linen in
particular, which used to come into competition, even in the
British market, with the manufactures of Great Britain; thirdly,
the peace between Russia and Turkey has occasioned an
extraordinary demand from the Turkey market, which, during the
distress of the country, and while a Russian fleet was cruising
in the Archipelago, had been very poorly supplied; fourthly, the
demand of the North of Europe for the manufactures of Great
Britain has been increasing from year to year for some time past;
and fifthly, the late partition and consequential pacification of
Poland, by opening the market of that great country, have this
year added an extraordinary demand from thence to the increasing
demand of the North. These events are all, except the fourth, in
their nature transitory and accidental, and the exclusion from so
important a branch of the colony trade, if unfortunately it
should continue much longer, may still occasion some degree of
distress. This distress, however, as it will come on gradually,
will be felt much less severely than if it had come on all at
once; and, in the meantime, the industry and capital of the
country may find a new employment and direction, so as to prevent
this distress from ever rising to any considerable height.
     The monopoly of the colony trade, therefore, so far as it
has turned towards that trade a greater proportion of the capital
of Great Britain than what would otherwise have gone to it, has
in all cases turned it, from a foreign trade of consumption with
a neighbouring into one with a more distant country; in many
cases, from a direct foreign trade of consumption into a
round-about one; and in some cases, from all foreign trade of
consumption into a carrying trade. It has in all cases,
therefore, turned it from a direction in which it would have
maintained a greater quantity of productive labour into one in
which it can maintain a much smaller quantity. By suiting,
besides, to one particular market only so great a part of the
industry and commerce of Great Britain, it has rendered the whole
state of that industry and commerce more precarious and less
secure than if their produce had been accommodated to a greater
variety of markets.
     We must carefully distinguish between the effects of the
colony trade and those of the monopoly of that trade. The former
are always and necessarily beneficial; the latter always and
necessarily hurtful. But the former are so beneficial that the
colony trade, though subject to a monopoly, and notwithstanding
the hurtful effects of that monopoly, is still upon the whole
beneficial, and greatly beneficial; though a good deal less so
than it otherwise would be.
     The effect of the colony trade in its natural and free state
is to open a great, though distant, market for such parts of the
produce of British industry as may exceed the demand of the
markets nearer home, of those of Europe, and of the countries
which lie round the Mediterranean Sea. In its natural and free
state, the colony trade, without drawing from those markets any
part of the produce which had ever been sent to them, encourages
Great Britain to increase the surplus continually by continually
presenting new equivalents to be exchanged for it. In its natural
and free state, the colony trade tends to increase the quantity
of productive labour in Great Britain, but without altering in
any respect the direction of that which had been employed there
before. In the natural and free state of the colony trade, the
competition of all other nations would hinder the rate of profit
from rising above the common level either in the new market or in
the new employment. The new market, without drawing anything from
the old one, would create, if one may say so, a new produce for
its own supply; and that new produce would constitute a new
capital for carrying on the new employment, which in the same
manner would draw nothing from the old one.
     The monopoly of the colony trade, on the contrary, by
excluding the competition of other nations, and thereby raising
the rate of profit both in the new market and in the new
employment, draws produce from the old market and capital from
the old employment. To augment our share of the colony trade
beyond what it otherwise would be is the avowed purpose of the
monopoly. If our share of that trade were to be no greater with
than it would have been without the monopoly, there could have
been no reason for establishing the monopoly. But whatever forces
into a branch of trade of which the returns are slower and more
distant than those of the greater part of other trades, a greater
proportion of the capital of any country than what of its own
accord would go to that branch, necessarily renders the whole
quantity of productive labour annually maintained there, the
whole annual produce of the land and labour of that country, less
than they otherwise would be. It keeps down the revenue of the
inhabitants of that country below what it would naturally rise
to, and thereby diminishes their power of accumulation. It not
only hinders, at all times, their capital from maintaining so
great a quantity of productive labour as it would otherwise
maintain, but it hinders it from increasing so fast as it would
otherwise increase, and consequently from maintaining a still
greater quantity of productive labour.
     The natural good effects of the colony trade, however, more
than counterbalance to Great Britain the bad effects of the
monopoly, so that, monopoly and all together, that trade, even as
it carried on at present, is not only advantageous, but greatly
advantageous. The new market and the new employment which are
opened by the colony trade are of much greater extent than that
portion of the old market and of the old employment which is lost
by the monopoly. The new produce and the new capital which has
been created, if one may say so, by the colony trade, maintain in
Great Britain a greater quantity of productive labour than what
can have been thrown out of employment by the revulsion of
capital from other trades of which the returns are more frequent.
If the colony trade, however, even as it is carried on at
present, is advantageous to Great Britain, it is not by means of
the monopoly, but in spite of the monopoly.
     It is rather for the manufactured than for the rude produce
of Europe that the colony trade opens a new market. Agriculture
is the proper business of all new colonies; a business which the
cheapness of land renders more advantageous than any other. They
abound, therefore, in the rude produce of land, and instead of
importing it from other countries, they have generally a large
surplus to export. In new colonies, agriculture either draws
hands from all other employments, or keeps them from going to any
other employment. There are few hands to spare for the necessary,
and none for the ornamental manufactures. The greater part of the
manufactures of both kinds they find it cheaper to purchase of
other countries than to make for themselves. It is chiefly by
encouraging the manufactures of Europe that the colony trade
indirectly encourages its agriculture. The manufactures of
Europe, to whom that trade gives employment, constitute a new
market for the produce of the land; and the most advantageous of
all markets, the home market for the corn and cattle, for the
bread and butcher's meat of Europe, is thus greatly extended by
means of the trade to America.
     But that the monopoly of the trade of populous and thriving
colonies is not alone sufficient to establish, or even to
maintain manufactures in any country, the examples of Spain and
Portugal sufficiently demonstrate. Spain and Portugal were
manufacturing countries before they had any considerable
colonies. Since they had the richest and most fertile in the
world, they have both ceased to be so.
     In Spain and Portugal the bad effects of the monopoly,
aggravated by other causes, have perhaps nearly overbalanced the
natural good effects of the colony trade. These causes seem to be
other monopolies of different kinds; the degradation of the value
of gold and silver below what it is in most other countries; the
exclusion from foreign markets by improper taxes upon
exportation, and the narrowing of the home market, by still more
improper taxes upon the transportation of goods from one part of
the country to another; but above all, that irregular and partial
administration of justice, which often protects the rich and
powerful debtor from the pursuit of his injured creditor, and
which makes the industrious part of the nation afraid to prepare
goods for the consumption of those haughty and great men to whom
they dare not refuse to sell upon credit, and from they are
altogether uncertain of repayment.
     In England, on the contrary, the natural good effects of the
colony trade, assisted by other causes, have in a great measure
conquered the bad effects of the monopoly. These causes seem to
be: the general liberty of trade, which, notwithstanding some
restraints, is at least equal, perhaps superior, to what it is in
any other country; the liberty of exporting, duty free, almost
all sorts of goods which are the produce of domestic industry to
almost any foreign country; and what perhaps is of still greater
importance, the unbounded liberty of transporting them from any
one part of our own country to any other without being obliged to
give any account to any public office, without being liable to
question or examination of any kind; but above all, that equal
and impartial administration of justice which renders the rights
of the meanest British subject respectable to the greatest, and
which, by securing to every man the fruits of his own industry,
gives the greatest and most effectual encouragement to every sort
of industry.
     If the manufactures of Great Britain, however, have been
advanced, as they certainly have, by the colony trade, it has not
been by means of the monopoly of that trade but in spite of the
monopoly. The effect of the monopoly has been, not to augment the
quantity, but to alter the quality and shape of a part of the
manufactures of Great Britain, and to accommodate to a market,
from which the returns are slow and distant, what would otherwise
have been accommodated to one from which the returns are frequent
and near. Its effect has consequently been to turn a part of the
capital of Great Britain from an employment in which it would
have maintained a greater quantity of manufacturing industry to
one in which it maintains a much smaller, and thereby to
diminish, instead of increasing, the whole quantity of
manufacturing industry maintained in Great Britain.
     The monopoly of the colony trade, therefore, like all the
other mean and malignant expedients of the mercantile system,
depresses the industry of all other countries, but chiefly that
of the colonies, without in the least increasing, but on the
contrary diminishing that of the country in whose favour it is
established.
     The monopoly hinders the capital of that country, whatever
may at any particular time be the extent of that capital, from
maintaining so great a quantity of productive labour as it would
otherwise maintain, and from affording so great a revenue to the
industrious inhabitants as it would otherwise afford. But as
capital can be increased only by savings from revenue, the
monopoly, by hindering it from affording so great a revenue as it
would otherwise afford, necessarily hinders it from increasing so
fast as it would otherwise increase, and consequently from
maintaining a still greater quantity of productive labour, and
affording a still greater revenue to the industrious inhabitants
of that country. One great original source of revenue, therefore,
the wages of labour, the monopoly must necessarily have rendered
at all times less abundant than it otherwise would have been.
     By raising the rate of mercantile profit, the monopoly
discourages the improvement of land. The profit of improvement
depends upon the difference between what the land actually
produces, and what, by the application of a certain capital, it
can be made to produce. If this difference affords a greater
profit than what can be drawn from an equal capital in any
mercantile employment, the improvement of land will draw capital
from all mercantile employments. If the profit is less,
mercantile employments will draw capital from the improvement of
land. Whatever, therefore, raises the rate of mercantile profit,
either lessens the superiority or increases the inferiority of
the profit of improvement; and in the one case hinders capital
from going to improvement, and in the other draws capital from
it. But by discouraging improvement, the monopoly necessarily
retards the natural increase of another great original source of
revenue, the rent of land. By raising the rate of profit, too,
the monopoly necessarily keeps up the market rate of interest
higher than it otherwise would be. But the price of land in
proportion to the rent which it affords, the number of years
purchase which is commonly paid for it, necessarily falls as the
rate of interest rises, and rises as the rate of interest falls.
The monopoly, therefore, hurts the interest of the landlord two
different ways, by retarding the natural increase, first, of his
rent, and secondly, of the price which he would get for his land
in proportion to the rent which it affords.
     The monopoly indeed raises the rate of mercantile profit,
and thereby augments somewhat the gain of our merchants. But as
it obstructs the natural increase of capital, it tends rather to
diminish than to increase the sum total of the revenue which the
inhabitants of the country derive from the profits of stock; a
small profit upon a great capital generally affording a greater
revenue than a great profit upon a small one. The monopoly raises
the rate of profit, but it hinders the sum of profit from rising
so high as it otherwise would do.
     All the original sources of revenue, the wages of labour,
the rent of land, and the profits of stock, the monopoly renders
much less abundant than they otherwise would be. To promote the
little interest of one little order of men in one country, it
hurts the interest of all other orders of men in that country,
and of all men in all other countries.
     It is solely by raising the ordinary rate of profit that the
monopoly either has proved or could prove advantageous to any one
particular order of men. But besides all the bad effects to the
country in general, which have already been mentioned as
necessarily resulting from a high rate of profit, there is one
more fatal, perhaps, than all these put together, but which, if
we may judge from experience, is inseparably connected with it.
The high rate of profit seems everywhere to destroy that
parsimony which in other circumstances is natural to the
character of the merchant. When profits are high that sober
virtue seems to be superfluous and expensive luxury to suit
better the affluence of his situation. But the owners of the
great mercantile capitals are necessarily the leaders and
conductors of the whole industry of every nation, and their
example has a much greater influence upon the manners of the
whole industrious part of it than that of any other order of men.
If his employer is attentive and parsimonious, the workman is
very likely to be so too; but if the master is dissolute and
disorderly, the servant who shapes his work according to the
pattern which his master prescribes to him will shape his life
too according to the example which he sets him. Accumulation is
thus prevented in the hands of all those who are naturally the
most disposed to accumulate, and the funds destined for the
maintenance of productive labour receive no augmentation from the
revenue of those who ought naturally to augment them the most.
The capital of the country, instead of increasing, gradually
dwindles away, and the quantity of productive labour maintained
in it grows every day less and less. Have the exorbitant profits
of the merchants of Cadiz and Lisbon augmented the capital of
Spain and Portugal? Have they alleviated the poverty, have they
promoted the industry of those two beggarly countries? Such has
been the tone of mercantile expense in those two trading cities
that those exorbitant profits, far from augmenting the general
capital of the country, seem scarce to have been sufficient to
keep up the capitals upon which they were made. Foreign capitals
are every day intruding themselves, if I may say so, more and
more into the trade of Cadiz and Lisbon. It is to expel those
foreign capitals from a trade which their own grows every day
more and more insufficient for carrying on that the Spaniards and
Portuguese endeavour every day to straighten more and more the
galling bands of their absurd monopoly. Compare the mercantile
manners of Cadiz and Lisbon with those of Amsterdam, and you will
be sensible how differently the conduct and character of
merchants are affected by the high and by the low profits of
stock. The merchants of London, indeed, have not yet generally
become such magnificent lords as those of Cadiz and Lisbon, but
neither are they in general such attentive and parsimonious
burghers as those of Amsterdam. They are supposed, however, many
of them, to be a good deal richer than the greater part of the
former, and not quite so rich as many of the latter. But the rate
of their profit is commonly much lower than that of the former,
and a good deal higher than that of the latter. Light come, light
go, says the proverb; and the ordinary tone of expense seems
everywhere to be regulated, not so much according to the real
ability of spending, as to the supposed facility of getting money
to spend.
     It is thus that the single advantage which the monopoly
procures to a single order of men is in many different ways
hurtful to the general interest of the country.
     To found a great empire for the sole purpose of raising up a
people of customers may at first sight appear a project fit only
for a nation of shopkeepers. It is, however, a project altogether
unfit for a nation of shopkeepers; but extremely fit for a nation
whose government is influenced by shopkeepers. Such statesmen,
and such statesmen only, are capable of fancying that they will
find some advantage in employing the blood and treasure of their
fellow-citizens to found and maintain such an empire. Say to a
shopkeeper, "Buy me a good estate, and I shall always buy my
clothes at your shop, even though I should pay somewhat dearer
than what I can have them for at other shops"; and you will not
find him very forward to embrace your proposal. But should any
other person buy you such an estate, the shopkeeper would be much
obliged to your benefactor if he would enjoin you to buy all your
clothes at his shop. England purchased for some of her subjects,
who found themselves uneasy at home, a great estate in a distant
country. The price, indeed, was very small, and instead of thirty
years' purchase, the ordinary price of land in the present times,
it amounted to little more than the expense of the different
equipments which made the first discovery, reconnoitred the
coast, and took a fictitious possession of the country. The land
was good and of great extent, and the cultivators having plenty
of good ground to work upon, and being for some time at liberty
to sell their produce where they pleased, became in the course of
little more than thirty or forty years (between 1620 and 1660) so
numerous and thriving a people that the shopkeepers and other
traders of England wished to secure to themselves the monopoly of
their custom. Without pretending, therefore, that they had paid
any part, either of the original purchase-money, or of the
subsequent expense of improvement, they petitioned the Parliament
that the cultivators of America might for the future be confined
to their shop; first, for buying all the goods which they wanted
from Europe; and, secondly, for selling all such parts of their
own produce as those traders might find it convenient to buy. For
they did not find it convenient to buy every part of it. Some
parts of it imported into England might have interfered with some
of the trades which they themselves carried on at home. Those
particular parts of it, therefore, they were willing that the
colonists should sell where they could- the farther off the
better; and upon that account purposed that their market should
be confined to the countries south of Cape Finisterre. A clause
in the famous Act of Navigation established this truly shopkeeper
proposal into a law.
     The maintenance of this monopoly has hitherto been the
principal, or more properly perhaps the sole end and purpose of
the dominion which Great Britain assumes over her colonies. In
the exclusive trade, it is supposed, consists the great advantage
of provinces, which have never yet afforded either revenue or
military force for the support of the civil government, or the
defence of the mother country. The monopoly is the principal
badge of their dependency, and it is the sole fruit which has
hitherto been gathered from that dependency. Whatever expense
Great Britain has hitherto laid out in maintaining this
dependency has really been laid out in order to support this
monopoly. The expense of the ordinary peace establishment of the
colonies amounted, before the commencement of the present
disturbances, to the pay of twenty regiments of foot; to the
expense of the artillery, stores, and extraordinary provisions
with which it was necessary to supply them; and to the expense of
a very considerable naval force which was constantly kept up, in
order to guard, from the smuggling vessels of other nations, the
immense coast of North America, and that of our West Indian
islands. The whole expense of this peace establishment was a
charge upon the revenue of Great Britain, and was, at the same
time, the smallest part of what the dominion of the colonies has
cost the mother country. If we would know the amount of the
whole, we must add to the annual expense of this peace
establishment the interest of the sums which, in consequence of
her considering her colonies as provinces subject to her
dominion, Great Britain has upon different occasions laid out
upon their defence. We must add to it, in particular, the whole
expense of the late war, and a great part of that of the war
which preceded it. The late war was altogether a colony quarrel,
and the whole expense of it, in whatever part of the world it may
have been laid out, whether in Germany or the East Indies, ought
justly to be stated to the account of the colonies. It amounted
to more than ninety millions sterling, including not only the new
debt which was contracted, but the two shillings in the pound
additional land tax, and the sums which were every year borrowed
from the sinking fund. The Spanish war, which began in 1739, was
principally a colony quarrel. Its principal object was to prevent
the search of the colony ships which carried on a contraband
trade with the Spanish Main. This whole expense is, in reality, a
bounty which has been given in order to support a monopoly. The
pretended purpose of it was to encourage the manufactures, and to
increase the commerce of Great Britain. But its real effect has
been to raise the rate of mercantile profit, and to enable our
merchants to turn into a branch of trade, of which the returns
are more slow and distant than those of the greater part of other
trades, a greater proportion of their capital than they otherwise
would have done; two events which, if a bounty could have
prevented, it might perhaps have been very well worth while to
give such a bounty.
     Under the present system of management, therefore, Great
Britain derives nothing but loss from the dominion which she
assumes over her colonies.
     To propose that Great Britain should voluntarily give up all
authority over her colonies, and leave them to elect their own
magistrates, to enact their own laws, and to make peace and war
as they might think proper, would be to propose such a measure as
never was, and never will be adopted, by any nation in the world.
No nation ever voluntarily gave up the dominion of any province,
how troublesome soever it might be to govern it, and how small
soever the revenue which it afforded might be in proportion to
the expense which it occasioned. Such sacrifices, though they
might frequently be agreeable to the interest, are always
mortifying to the pride of every nation, and what is perhaps of
still greater consequence, they are always contrary to the
private interest of the governing part of it, who would thereby
be deprived of the disposal of many places of trust and profit,
of many opportunities of acquiring wealth and distinction, which
the possession of the most turbulent, and, to the great body of
the people, the most unprofitable province seldom fails to
afford. The most visionary enthusiast would scarce be capable of
proposing such a measure with any serious hopes at least of its
ever being adopted. If it was adopted, however, Great Britain
would not only be immediately freed from the whole annual expense
of the peace establishment of the colonies, but might settle with
them such a treaty of commerce as would effectually secure to her
a free trade, more advantageous to the great body of the people,
though less so to the merchants, than the monopoly which she at
present enjoys. By thus parting good friends, the natural
affection of the colonies to the mother country which, perhaps,
our late dissensions have well nigh extinguished, would quickly
revive. It might dispose them not only to respect, for whole
centuries together, that treaty of commerce which they had
concluded with us at parting, but to favour us in war as well as
in trade, and, instead of turbulent and factious subjects, to
become our most faithful, affectionate, and generous allies; and
the same sort of parental affection on the one side, and filial
respect on the other, might revive between Great Britain and her
colonies, which used to subsist between those of ancient Greece
and the mother city from which they descended.
     In order to render any province advantageous to the empire
to which it belongs, it ought to afford, in time of peace, a
revenue to the public sufficient not only for defraying the whole
expense of its own peace establishment, but for contributing its
proportion to the support of the general government of the
empire. Every province necessarily contributes, more or less, to
increase the expense of that general government. If any
particular province, therefore, does not contribute its share
towards defraying this expense, an unequal burden must be thrown
upon some other part of the empire. The extraordinary revenue,
too, which every province affords to the public in time of war,
ought, from parity of reason, to bear the same proportion to the
extraordinary revenue of the whole empire which its ordinary
revenue does in time of peace. That neither the ordinary nor
extraordinary revenue which Great Britain derives from her
colonies, bears this proportion to the whole revenue of the
British empire, will readily be allowed. The monopoly, it has
been supposed, indeed, by increasing the private revenue of the
people of Great Britain, and thereby enabling them to pay greater
taxes, compensates the deficiency of the public revenue of the
colonies. But this monopoly, I have endeavoured to show, though a
very grievous tax upon the colonies, and though it may increase
the revenue of a particular order of men in Great Britain,
diminishes instead of increasing that of the great body of the
people; and consequently diminishes instead of increasing the
ability of the great body of the people to pay taxes. The men,
too, whose revenue the monopoly increases, constitute a
particular order, which it is both absolutely impossible to tax
beyond the proportion of other orders, and extremely impolitic
even to attempt to tax beyond that proportion, as I shall
endeavour to show in the following book. No particular resource,
therefore, can be drawn from this particular order.
     The colonies may be taxed either by their own assemblies, or
by the Parliament of Great Britain.
     That the colony assemblies can ever be so managed as to levy
upon their constituents a public revenue sufficient not only to
maintain at all times their own civil and military establishment,
but to pay their proper proportion of the expense of the general
government of the British empire seems not very probable. It was
a long time before even the Parliament of England, though placed
immediately under the eye of the sovereign, could be brought
under such a system of management, or could be rendered
sufficiently liberal in their grants for supporting the civil and
military establishments even of their own country. It was only by
distributing among the particular Members of Parliament a great
part either of the offices, or of the disposal of the offices
arising from this civil and military establishment, that such a
system of management could be established even with regard to the
Parliament of England. But the distance of the colony assemblies
from the eye of the sovereign, their number, their dispersed
situation, and their various constitutions, would render it very
difficult to manage them in the same manner, even though the
sovereign had the same means of doing it; and those means are
wanting. It would be absolutely impossible to distribute among
all the leading members of all the colony assemblies such a
share, either of the offices or of the disposal of the offices
arising from the general government of the British empire, as to
dispose them to give up their popularity at home, and to tax
their constituents for the support of that general government, of
which almost the whole emoluments were to be divided among people
who were strangers to them. The unavoidable ignorance of
administration, besides, concerning the relative importance of
the different members of those different assemblies, the offences
which must frequently be given, the blunders which must
constantly be committed in attempting to manage them in this
manner, seems to render such a system of management altogether
impracticable with regard to them.
     The colony assemblies, besides, cannot be supposed the
proper judges of what is necessary for the defence and support of
the whole empire. The care of that defence and support is not
entrusted to them. It is not their business, and they have no
regular means of information concerning it. The assembly of a
province, like the vestry of a parish, may judge very properly
concerning the affairs of its own particular district; but can
have no proper means of judging concerning those of the whole
empire. It cannot even judge properly concerning the proportion
which its own province bears to the whole empire; or concerning
the relative degree of its wealth and importance compared with
the other provinces; because those other provinces are not under
the inspection and superintendency of the assembly of a
particular province. What is necessary for the defence and
support of the whole empire, and in what proportion each part
ought to contribute, can be judged of only by that assembly which
inspects and superintends the affairs of the whole empire.
     It has been proposed, accordingly, that the colonies should
be taxed by requisition, the Parliament of Great Britain
determining the sum which each colony ought to pay, and the
provincial assembly assessing and levying it in the way that
suited best the circumstances of the province. What concerned the
whole empire would in this way be determined by the assembly
which inspects and superintends the affairs of the whole empire;
and the provincial affairs of each colony might still be
regulated by its own assembly. Though the colonies should in this
case have no representatives in the British Parliament, yet, if
we may judge by experience, there is no probability that the
Parliamentary requisition would be unreasonable. The Parliament
of England has not upon any occasion shown the smallest
disposition to overburden those parts of the empire which are not
represented in Parliament. The islands of Guernsey and Jersey,
without any means of resisting the authority of Parliament, are
more lightly taxed than any part of Great Britain. Parliament in
attempting to exercise its supposed right, whether well or ill
grounded, of taxing the colonies, has never hitherto demanded of
them anything which even approached to a just proportion to what
was paid by their fellow subjects at home. If the contribution of
the colonies, besides, was to rise or fall in proportion to the
rise or fall of the land tax, Parliament could not tax them
without taxing at the same time its own constituents, and the
colonies might in this case be considered as virtually
represented in Parliament.
     Examples are not wanting of empires in which all the
different provinces are not taxed, if I may be allowed the
expression, in one mass; but in which the sovereign regulates the
sum which each province ought to pay, and in some provinces
assesses and levies it as he thinks proper; while in others, he
leaves it to be assessed and levied as the respective states of
each province shall determine. In some provinces of France, the
king not only imposes what taxes he thinks proper, but assesses
and levies them in the way he thinks proper. From others he
demands a certain sum, but leaves it to the states of each
province to assess and levy that sum as they think proper.
According to the scheme of taxing by requisition, the Parliament
of Great Britain would stand nearly in the same situation towards
the colony assemblies as the King of France does towards the
states of those provinces which still enjoy the privilege of
having states of their own, the provinces of France which are
supposed to be the best governed.
     But though, according to this scheme, the colonies could
have no just reason to fear that their share of the public
burdens should ever exceed the proper proportion to that of their
fellow-citizens at home; Great Britain might have just reason to
fear that it never would amount to that proper proportion. The
Parliament of Great Britain has not for some time past had the
same established authority in the colonies, which the French king
has in those provinces of France which still enjoy the privilege
of having states of their own. The colony assemblies, if they
were not very favourably disposed (and unless more skilfully
managed than they ever have been hitherto, they are not very
likely to be so) might still find many pretences for evading or
rejecting the most reasonable requisitions of Parliament. A
French war breaks out, we shall suppose; ten millions must
immediately be raised in order to defend the seat of the empire.
This sum must be borrowed upon the credit of some Parliamentary
fund mortgaged for paying the interest. Part of this fund
Parliament proposes to raise by a tax to be levied in Great
Britain, and part of it by a requisition to all the different
colony assemblies of America and the West Indies. Would people
readily advance their money upon the credit of a fund, which
partly depended upon the good humour of all those assemblies, far
distant from the seat of the war, and sometimes, perhaps,
thinking themselves not much concerned in the event of it? Upon
such a fund no more money would probably be advanced than what
the tax to be levied in Great Britain might be supposed to answer
for. The whole burden of the debt contracted on account of the
war would in this manner fall, as it always has done hitherto,
upon Great Britain; upon a part of the empire, and not upon the
whole empire. Great Britain is, perhaps, since the world began,
the only state which, as it has extended its empire, has only
increased its expense without once augmenting its resources.
Other states have generally disburdened themselves upon their
subject and subordinate provinces of the most considerable part
of the expense of defending the empire. Great Britain has
hitherto suffered her subject and subordinate provinces to
disburden themselves upon her of almost this whole expense. In
order to put Great Britain upon a footing of equality with her
own colonies, which the law has hitherto supposed to be subject
and subordinate, it seems necessary, upon the scheme of taxing
them by Parliamentary requisition, that Parliament should have
some means of rendering its requisitions immediately effectual,
in case the colony assemblies should attempt to evade or reject
them; and what those means are, it is not very easy to conceive,
and it has not yet been explained.
     Should the Parliament of Great Britain, at the same time, be
ever fully established in the right of taxing the colonies, even
independent of the consent of their own assemblies, the
importance of those assemblies would from that moment be at an
end, and with it, that of all the leading men of British America.
Men desire to have some share in the management of public affairs
chiefly on account of the importance which it gives them. Upon
the power which the greater part of the leading men, the natural
aristocracy of every country, have of preserving or defending
their respective importance, depends the stability and duration
of every system of free government. In the attacks which those
leading men are continually making upon the importance of one
another, and in the defence of their own, consists the whole play
of domestic faction and ambition. The leading men of America,
like those of all other countries, desire to preserve their own
importance. They feel, or imagine, that if their assemblies,
which they are fond of calling parliaments, and of considering as
equal in authority to the Parliament of Great Britain, should be
so far degraded as to become the humble ministers and executive
officers of that Parliament, the greater part of their own
importance would be at end. They have rejected, therefore, the
proposal of being taxed by Parliamentary requisition, and like
other ambitious and high-spirited men, have rather chosen to draw
the sword in defence of their own importance.
     Towards the declension of the Roman republic, the allies of
Rome, who had borne the principal burden of defending the state
and extending the empire, demanded to be admitted to all the
privileges of Roman citizens. Upon being refused, the social war
broke out. During the course of that war, Rome granted those
privileges to the greater part of them one by one, and in
proportion as they detached themselves from the general
confederacy. The Parliament of Great Britain insists upon taxing
the colonies; and they refuse to be taxed by a Parliament in
which they are not represented. If to each colony, which should
detach itself from the general confederacy, Great Britain should
allow such a number of representatives as suited the proportion
of what is contributed to the public revenue of the empire, in
consequence of its being subjected to the same taxes, and in
compensation admitted to the same freedom of trade with its
fellow-subjects at home; the number of its representatives to be
augmented as the proportion of its contribution might afterwards
augment; a new method of acquiring importance, a new and more
dazzling object of ambition would be presented to the leading men
of each colony. Instead of piddling for the little prizes which
are to be found in what may be called the paltry raffle of colony
faction; they might then hope, from the presumption which men
naturally have in their own ability and good fortune, to draw
some of the great prizes which sometimes come from the wheel of
the great state lottery of British polities. Unless this or some
other method is fallen upon, and there seems to be none more
obvious than this, of preserving the importance and of gratifying
the ambition of the leading men of America, it is not very
probable that they will ever voluntarily submit to us; and we
ought to consider that the blood which must be shed in forcing
them to do so is, every drop of it, blood either of those who
are, or of those whom we wish to have for our fellow citizens.
They are very weak who flatter themselves that, in the state to
which things have come, our colonies will be easily conquered by
force alone. The persons who now govern the resolutions of what
they call their Continental Congress, feel in themselves at this
moment a degree of importance which, perhaps, the greatest
subjects in Europe scarce feel. From shopkeepers, tradesmen, and
attornies, they are become statesmen and legislators, and are
employed in contriving a new form of government for an extensive
empire, which, they flatter themselves, will become, and which,
indeed, seems very likely to become, one of the greatest and most
formidable that ever was in the world. Five hundred different
people, perhaps, who in different ways act immediately under the
Continental Congress; and five hundred thousand, perhaps, who act
under those five hundred, all feel in the same manner a
proportionable rise in their own importance. Almost every
individual of the governing party in America fills, at present in
his own fancy, a station superior, not only to what he had ever
filled before, but to what he had ever expected to fill; and
unless some new object of ambition is presented either to him or
to his leaders, if he has the ordinary spirit of a man, he will
die in defence of that station.
     It is a remark of the president Henaut, that we now read
with pleasure the account of many little transactions of the
Ligue, which when they happened were not perhaps considered as
very important pieces of news. But every man then, says he,
fancied himself of some importance; and the innumerable memoirs
which have come down to us from those times, were, the greater
part of them, written by people who took pleasure in recording
and magnifying events in which, they flattered themselves, they
had been considerable actors. How obstinately the city of Paris
upon that occasion defended itself, what a dreadful famine it
supported rather than submit to the best and afterwards to the
most beloved of all the French kings, is well known. The greater
part of the citizens, or those who governed the greater part of
them, fought in defence of their own importance, which they
foresaw was to be at an end whenever the ancient government
should be re-established. Our colonies, unless they can be
induced to consent to a union, are very likely to defend
themselves against the best of all mother countries as
obstinately as the city of Paris did against one of the best of
kings.
     The idea of representation was unknown in ancient times.
When the people of one state were admitted to the right of
citizenship in another, they had no other means of exercising
that right but by coming in a body to vote and deliberate with
the people of that other state. The admission of the greater part
of the inhabitants of Italy to the privileges of Roman citizens
completely ruined the Roman republic. It was no longer possible
to distinguish between who was and who was not a Roman citizen.
No tribe could know its own members. A rabble of any kind could
be introduced into the assemblies of the people, could drive out
the real citizens, and decide upon the affairs of the republic as
if they themselves had been such. But though America were to send
fifty or sixty new representatives to Parliament, the doorkeeper
of the House of Commons could not find any great difficulty in
distinguishing between who was and who was not a member. Though
the Roman constitution, therefore, was necessarily ruined by the
union of Rome with the allied states of Italy, there is not the
least probability that the British constitution would be hurt by
the union of Great Britain with her colonies. That constitution,
on the contrary, would be completed by it, and seems to be
imperfect without it. The assembly which deliberates and decides
concerning the affairs of every part of the empire, in order to
be properly informed, ought certainly to have representatives
from every part of it That this union, however, could be easily
effectuated, or that difficulties and great difficulties might
not occur in the execution, I do not pretend. I have yet heard of
none, however, which appear insurmountable. The principal perhaps
arise, not from the nature of things, but from the prejudices and
opinions of the people both on this and on the other side of the
Atlantic.
     We, on this side of the water, are afraid lest the multitude
of American representatives should overturn the balance of the
constitution, and increase too much either the influence of the
crown on the one hand, or the force of the democracy on the
other. But if the number of American representatives were to be
in proportion to the produce of American taxation, the number of
people to be managed would increase exactly in proportion to the
means of managing them; and the means of managing to the number
of people to be managed. The monarchical and democratical parts
of the constitution would, after the union, stand exactly in the
same degree of relative force with regard to one another as they
had done before.
     The people on the other side of the water are afraid lest
their distance from the seat of government might expose them to
many oppressions. But their representatives in Parliament, of
which the number ought from the first to be considerable, would
easily be able to protect them from all oppression. The distance
could not much weaken the dependency of the representative upon
the constituent, and the former would still feel that he owed his
seat in Parliament, and all the consequences which he derived
from it, to the good will of the latter. It would be the interest
of the former, therefore, to cultivate that good will by
complaining, with all the authority of a member of the
legislature, of every outrage which any civil or military officer
might be guilty of in those remote parts of the empire. The
distance of America from the seat of government, besides, the
natives of that country might flatter themselves, with some
appearance of reason too, would not be of very long continuance.
Such has hitherto been the rapid progress of that country in
wealth, population, and improvement, that in the course of little
more than a century, perhaps, the produce of American might
exceed that of British taxation. The seat of the empire would
then naturally remove itself to that part of the empire which
contributed most to the general defence and support of the whole.
     The discovery of America, and that of a passage to the East
Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, are the two greatest and most
important events recorded in the history of mankind. Their
consequences have already been very great; but, in the short
period of between two and three centuries which has elapsed since
these discoveries were made, it is impossible that the whole
extent of their consequences can have been seen. What benefits or
what misfortunes to mankind may hereafter result from those great
events, no human wisdom can foresee. By uniting, in some measure,
the most distant parts of the world, by enabling them to relieve
one another's wants, to increase one another's enjoyments, and to
encourage one another's industry, their general tendency would
seem to be beneficial. To the natives however, both of the East
and West Indies, all the commercial benefits which can have
resulted from those events have been sunk and lost in the
dreadful misfortunes which they have occasioned. These
misfortunes, however, seem to have arisen rather from accident
than from anything in the nature of those events themselves. At
the particular time when these discoveries were made, the
superiority of force happened to be so great on the side of the
Europeans that they were enabled to commit with impunity every
sort of injustice in those remote countries. Hereafter, perhaps,
the natives of those countries may grow stronger, or those of
Europe may grow weaker, and the inhabitants of all the different
quarters of the world may arrive at that equality of courage and
force which, by inspiring mutual fear, can alone overawe the
injustice of independent nations into some sort of respect for
the rights of one another. But nothing seems more likely to
establish this equality of force than that mutual communication
of knowledge and of all sorts of improvements which an extensive
commerce from all countries to all countries naturally, or rather
necessarily, carries along with it.
     In the meantime one of the principal effects of those
discoveries has been to raise the mercantile system to a degree
of splendour and glory which it could never otherwise have
attained to. It is the object of that system to enrich a great
nation rather by trade and manufactures than by the improvement
and cultivation of land, rather by the industry of the towns than
by that of the country. But, in consequence of those discoveries,
the commercial towns of Europe, instead of being the
manufacturers and carriers for but a very small part of the world
(that part of Europe which is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, and
the countries which lie round the Baltic and Mediterranean seas),
have now become the manufacturers for the numerous and thriving
cultivators of America, and the carriers, and in some respects
the manufacturers too, for almost all the different nations of
Asia, Africa, and America. Two new worlds have been opened to
their industry, each of them much greater and more extensive than
the old one, and the market of one of them growing still greater
and greater every day.
     The countries which possess the colonies of America, and
which trade directly to the East Indies, enjoy, indeed, the whole
show and splendour of this great commerce. Other countries,
however, notwithstanding all the invidious restraints by which it
is meant to exclude them, frequently enjoy a greater share of the
real benefit of it. The colonies of Spain and Portugal, for
example, give more real encouragement to the industry of other
countries than to that of Spain and Portugal. In the single
article of linen alone the consumption of those colonies amounts,
it is said, but I do not pretend to warrant the quantity, to more
than three millions sterling a year. But this great consumption
is almost entirely supplied by France, Flanders, Holland, and
Germany. Spain and Portugal furnish but a small part of it. The
capital which supplies the colonies with this great quantity of
linen is annually distributed among, and furnishes a revenue to
the inhabitants of, those other countries. The profits of it only
are spent in Spain and Portugal, where they help to support the
sumptuous profusion of the merchants of Cadiz and Lisbon.
     Even the regulations by which each nation endeavours to
secure to itself the exclusive trade of its own colonies are
frequently more hurtful to the countries in favour of which they
are established than to those against which they are established.
The unjust oppression of the industry of other countries falls
back, if I may say so, upon the heads of the oppressors, and
crushes their industry more than it does that of those other
countries. By those regulations for example, the merchant of
Hamburg must send the linen which he destines for the American
market to London, and he must bring back from thence the tobacco
which he destines for the German market, because he can neither
send the one directly to America nor bring back the other
directly from thence. By this restraint he is probably obliged to
sell the one somewhat cheaper, and to sell the one somewhat
cheaper, and to buy the other somewhat dearer than he otherwise
might have done; and his profits are probably somewhat abridged
by means of it. In this trade, however, between Hamburg and
London, he certainly receives the returns of his capital much
more quickly than he could possibly have done in the direct trade
to America, even though we should suppose, what is by no means
the case, that the payments of America were as punctual as those
of London. In the trade, therefore, to which those regulations
confine the merchant of Hamburg, his capital can keep in constant
employment a much greater quantity of German industry than it
possibly could have done in the trade from which he is excluded.
Though the one employment, therefore, may to him perhaps be less
profitable than the other, it cannot be less advantageous to his
country. It is quite otherwise with the employment into which the
monopoly naturally attracts, if I may say so, the capital of the
London merchant. That employment may, perhaps, be more profitable
to him than the greater part of other employments, but, on
account of the slowness of the returns, it cannot be more
advantageous to his country.
     After all the unjust attempts, therefore, of every country
in Europe to engross to itself the whole advantage of the trade
of its own colonies, no country has yet been able to engross
itself anything but the expense of supporting in time of peace
and of defending in time of war the oppressive authority which it
assumes over them. The inconveniencies resulting from the
possession of its colonies, every country has engrossed to itself
completely. The advantages resulting from their trade it has been
obliged to share with many other countries.
     At first sight, no doubt, the monopoly of the great commerce
of America naturally seems to be an acquisition of the highest
value. To the undiscerning eye of giddy ambition, it naturally
presents itself amidst the confused scramble of politics and war
as a very dazzling object to fight for. The dazzling splendour of
the object, however, the immense greatness of the commerce, is
the very quality which renders the monopoly of it hurtful, or
which makes one employment, in its own nature necessarily less
advantageous to the country than the greater part of other
employments, absorb a much greater proportion of the capital of
the country than what would otherwise have gone to it.
     The mercantile stock of every country, it has been shown in
the second book, naturally seeks, if one may say so, the
employment most advantageous to that country. If it is employed
in the carrying trade, the country to which it belongs becomes
the emporium of the goods of all the countries whose trade that
stock carries on. But the owner of that stock necessarily wishes
to dispose of as great a part of those goods as he can at home.
He thereby saves himself the trouble, risk, and expense of
exportation, and he will upon that account be glad to sell them
at home, not only for a much smaller price, but with somewhat a
smaller profit than he might expect to make by sending them
abroad. He naturally, therefore, endeavours as much as he can to
turn his carrying trade into a foreign trade of consumption. If
his stock, again, is employed in a foreign trade of consumption,
he will, for the same reason, be glad to dispose of at home as
great a part as he can of the home goods, which he collects in
order to export to some foreign market, and he will thus
endeavour, as much as he can, to turn his foreign trade of
consumption into a home trade. The mercantile stock of every
country naturally courts in this manner the near, and shuns the
distant employment; naturally courts the employment in which the
returns are frequent, and shuns that in which they are distant
and slow; naturally courts the employment in which it can
maintain the greatest quantity of productive labour in the
country to which it belongs, or in which its owner resides, and
shuns that in which it can maintain there the smallest quantity.
It naturally courts the employment which in ordinary cases is
most advantageous, and shuns that which in ordinary cases is
least advantageous to that country.
     But if in any of those distant employments, which in
ordinary cases are less advantageous to the country, the profit
should happen to rise somewhat higher than what is sufficient to
balance the natural preference which is given to nearer
employments, this superiority of profit will draw stock from
those nearer employments, till the profits of all return to their
proper level. This superiority of profit, however, is a proof
that, in the actual circumstances of the society, those distant
employments are somewhat understocked in proportion to other
employments, and that the stock of the society is not distributed
in the properest manner among all the different employments
carried on in it. It is a proof that something is either bought
cheaper or sold dearer than it ought to be, and that some
particular class of citizens is more or less oppressed either by
paying more or by getting less than what is suitable to that
equality which ought to take place, and which naturally does take
place among all the different classes of them. Though the same
capital never will maintain the same quantity of productive
labour in a distant as in a near employment, yet a distant
employment may be as necessary for the welfare of the society as
a near one; the goods which the distant employment deals in being
necessary, perhaps, for carrying on many of the nearer
employments. But if the profits of those who deal in such goods
are above their proper level, those goods will be sold dearer
than they ought to be, or somewhat above their natural price, and
all those engaged in the nearer employments will be more or less
oppressed by this high price. Their interest, therefore, in this
case requires that some stock should be withdrawn from those
nearer employments, and turned towards that distant one, in order
to reduce its profits to their proper level, and the price of the
goods which it deals in to their natural price. In this
extraordinary case, the public interest requires that some stock
should be withdrawn from those employments which in ordinary
cases are more advantageous, and turned towards one which in
ordinary cases is less advantageous to the public; and in this
extraordinary case the natural interests and inclinations of men
coincide as exactly with the public interest as in all other
ordinary cases, and lead them to withdraw stock from the near,
and to turn it towards the distant employment.
     It is thus that the private interests and passions of
individuals naturally dispose them to turn their stocks towards
the employments which in ordinary cases are most advantageous to
the society. But if from this natural preference they should turn
too much of it towards those employments, the fall of profit in
them and the rise of it in all others immediately dispose them to
alter this faulty distribution. Without any intervention of law,
therefore, the private interests and passions of men naturally
lead them to divide and distribute the stock of every society
among all the different employments carried on in it as nearly as
possible in the proportion which is most agreeable to the
interest of the whole society.
     All the different regulations of the mercantile system
necessarily derange more or less this natural and most
advantageous distribution of stock. But those which concern the
trade to America and the East Indies derange it perhaps more than
any other, because the trade to those two great continents
absorbs a greater quantity of stock than any two other branches
of trade. The regulations, however, by which this derangement is
effected in those two different branches of trade are not
altogether the same. Monopoly is the great engine of both; but it
is a different sort of monopoly. Monopoly of one kind or another,
indeed, seems to be the sole engine of the mercantile system.
     In the trade to America every nation endeavours to engross
as much as possible the whole market of its own colonies by
fairly excluding all other nations from any direct trade to them.
During the greater part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese
endeavoured to manage the trade to the East Indies in the same
manner, by claiming the sole right of sailing in the Indian seas,
on account of the merit of having first found out the road to
them. The Dutch still continue to exclude all other European
nations from any direct trade to their spice islands. Monopolies
of this kind are evidently established against all other European
nations, who are thereby not only excluded from a trade to which
it might be convenient for them to turn some part of their stock,
but are obliged to buy the goods which that trade deals in
somewhat dearer than if they could import them themselves
directly from the countries which produce them.
     But since the fall of the power of Portugal, no European
nation has claimed the exclusive right of sailing in the Indian
seas, of which the principal ports are now open to the ships of
all European nations. Except in Portugal, however, and within
these few years in France, the trade to the East Indies has in
every European country been subjected to an exclusive company.
Monopolies of this kind are properly established against the very
nation which erects them. The greater part of that nation are
thereby not only excluded from a trade to which it might be
convenient for them to turn some part of their stock, but are
obliged to buy the goods which that trade deals somewhat dearer
than if it was open and free to all their countrymen. Since the
establishment of the English East India Company, for example, the
other inhabitants of England, over and above being excluded from
the trade, must have paid in the price of the East India goods
which they have consumed, not only for all the extraordinary
profits which the company may have made upon those goods in
consequence of their monopoly, but for all the extraordinary
waste which the fraud and abuse, inseparable from the management
of the affairs of so great a company, must necessarily have
occasioned. The absurdity of this second kind of monopoly,
therefore, is much more manifest than that of the first.
     Both these kinds of monopolies derange more or less the
natural distribution of the stock of the society; but they do not
always derange it in the same way.
     Monopolies of the first kind always attract to the
particular trade in which they are established a greater
proportion of the stock of the society than what would go to that
trade of its own accord.
     Monopolies of the second kind may sometimes attract stock
towards the particular trade in which they are established, and
sometimes repel it from that trade according to different
circumstances. In poor countries they naturally attract towards
that trade more stock than would otherwise go to it. In rich
countries they naturally repel from it a good deal of stock which
would otherwise go to it.
     Such poor countries as Sweden and Denmark, for example,
would probably have never sent a single ship to the East Indies
had not the trade been subjected to an exclusive company. The
establishment of such a company necessarily encourages
adventurers. Their monopoly secures them against all competitors
in the home market, and they have the same chance for foreign
markets with the traders of other nations. Their monopoly shows
them the certainty of a great profit upon a considerable quantity
of goods, and the chance of a considerable profit upon a great
quantity. Without such extraordinary encouragement, the poor
traders of such poor countries would probably never have thought
of hazarding their small capitals in so very distant and
uncertain an adventure as the trade to the East Indies must
naturally have appeared to them.
     Such a rich country as Holland, on the contrary, would
probably, in the case of a free trade, send many more ships to
the East Indies than it actually does. The limited stock of the
Dutch East India Company probably repels from that trade many
great mercantile capitals which would otherwise go to it. The
mercantile capital of Holland is so great that it is, as it were,
continually overflowing, sometimes into the public funds of
foreign countries, sometimes into loans to private traders and
adventurers of foreign countries, sometimes into the most
round-about foreign trades of consumption, and sometimes into the
carrying trade. All near employments being completely filled up,
all the capital which can be placed in them with any tolerable
profit being already placed in them, the capital of Holland
necessarily flows towards the most distant employments. The trade
to the East Indies, if it were altogether free, would probably
absorb the greater part of this redundant capital. The East
Indies offer a market for the manufactures of Europe and for the
gold and silver as well as for several other productions of
America greater and more extensive than both Europe and America
put together.
     Every derangement of the natural distribution of stock is
necessarily hurtful to the society in which it takes place;
whether it be by repelling from a particular trade the stock
which would otherwise go to it, or by attracting towards a
particular trade that which would not otherwise come to it. If,
without any exclusive company, the trade of Holland to the East
Indies would be greater than it actually is, that country must
suffer a considerable loss by part of its capital being excluded
from the employment most convenient for that part. And in the
same manner, if, without an exclusive company, the trade of
Sweden and Denmark to the East Indies would be less than it
actually is, or, what perhaps is more probable, would not exist
at all, those two countries must likewise suffer a considerable
loss by part of their capital being drawn into an employment
which must be more or less unsuitable to their present
circumstances. Better for them, perhaps, in their present
circumstances, to buy East India goods of other nations, even
though they should pay somewhat dearer, than to turn so great a
part of their small capital to so very distant a trade, in which
the returns are so very slow, in which that capital can maintain
so small a quantity of productive labour at home, where
productive labour is so much wanted, where so little is done, and
where so much is to do.
     Though without an exclusive company, therefore, a particular
country should not be able to carry on any direct trade to the
East Indies, it will not from thence follow that such a company
ought to be established there, but only that such a country ought
not in these circumstances to trade directly to the East Indies.
That such companies are not in general necessary for carrying on
the East India trade is sufficiently demonstrated by the
experience of the Portuguese, who enjoyed almost the whole of it
for more than a century together without any exclusive company.
     No private merchant, it has been said, could well have
capital sufficient to maintain factors and agents in the
different ports of the East Indies, in order to provide goods for
the ships which he might occasionally send thither; and yet,
unless he was able to do this, the difficulty of finding a cargo
might frequently make his ships lose the season for returning,
and the expense of so long a delay would not only eat up the
whole profit of the adventure, but frequently occasion a very
considerable loss. This argument, however, if it proved anything
at all, would prove that no one great branch of trade could be
carried on without an exclusive company, which is contrary to the
experience of all nations. There is no great branch of trade in
which the capital of any one private merchant is sufficient for
carrying on all the subordinate branches which must be carried
on, in order to carry on the principal one. But when a nation is
ripe for any great branch of trade, some merchants naturally turn
their capitals towards the principal, and some towards the
subordinate branches of it; and though all the different branches
of it are in this manner carried on, yet it very seldom happens
that they are all carried on by the capital of one private
merchant. If a nation, therefore, is ripe for the East India
trade, a certain portion of its capital will naturally divide
itself among all the different branches of that trade. Some of
its merchants will find it for their interest to reside in the
East Indies, and to employ their capitals there in providing
goods for the ships which are to be sent out by other merchants
who reside in Europe. The settlements which different European
nations have obtained in the East Indies, if they were taken from
the exclusive companies to which they at present belong and put
under the immediate protection of the sovereign, would render
this residence both safe and easy, at least to the merchants of
the particular nations to whom those settlements belong. If at
any particular time that part of the capital of any country which
of its own accord tended and inclined, if I may say so, towards
the East India trade, was not sufficient for carrying on all
those different branches of it, it would be a proof that, at that
particular time, that country was not ripe for that trade, and
that it would do better to buy for some time, even at a higher
price, from other European nations, the East India goods it had
occasion for, than to import them itself directly from the East
Indies. What it might lose by the high price of those goods could
seldom be equal to the loss which it would sustain by the
distraction of a large portion of its capital from other
employments more necessary, or more useful, or more suitable to
its circumstances and situation, than a direct trade to the East
Indies.
     Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements
both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have
not yet established in either of those countries such numerous
and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of
America. Africa, however, as well as several of the countries
comprehended under the general name of the East Indies, are
inhabited by barbarous nations. But those nations were by no
means so weak and defenceless as the miserable and helpless
Americans; and in proportion to the natural fertility of the
countries which they inhabited, they were besides much more
populous. The most barbarous nations either of Africa or of the
East Indies were shepherds; even the Hottentots were so. But the
natives of every part of America, except Mexico and Peru, were
only hunters; and the difference is very great between the number
of shepherds and that of hunters whom the same extent of equally
fertile territory can maintain. In Africa and the East Indies,
therefore, it was more difficult to displace the natives, and to
extend the European plantations over the greater part of the
lands of the original inhabitants. The genius of exclusive
companies, besides, is unfavourable, it has already been
observed, to the growth of new colonies, and has probably been
the principal cause of the little progress which they have made
in the East Indies. The Portuguese carried on the trade both to
Africa and the East Indies without any exclusive companies, and
their settlements at Congo, Angola, and Benguela on the coast of
Africa, and at Goa in the East Indies, though much depressed by
superstition and every sort of bad government, yet bear some
faint resemblance to the colonies of America, and are partly
inhabited by Portuguese who have been established there for
several generations. The Dutch settlements at the Cape of Good
Hope and at Batavia are at present the most considerable colonies
which the Europeans have established either in Africa or in the
East Indies, and both these settlements are peculiarly fortunate
in their situation. The Cape of Good Hope was inhabited by a race
of people almost as barbarous and quite as incapable of defending
themselves as the natives of America. It is besides the halfway
house, if one may say so, between Europe and the East Indies, at
which almost every European ship makes some stay, both in going
and returning. The supplying of those ships with every sort of
fresh provisions, with fruit and sometimes with wine, affords
alone a very extensive market for the surplus produce of the
colonists. What the Cape of Good Hope is between Europe and every
part of the East Indies, Batavia is between the principal
countries of the East Indies. It lies upon the most frequented
road from Indostan to China and Japan, and is nearly about midway
upon that road. Almost all the ships, too, that sail between
Europe and China touch at Batavia; and it is, over and above all
this, the centre and principal mart of what is called the country
trade of the East Indies, not only of that part of it which is
carried on by Europeans, but of that which is carried on by the
native Indians; and vessels navigated by the inhabitants of China
and Japan, of Tonquin, Malacca, Cochin China, and the island of
Celebes, are frequently to be seen in its port. Such advantageous
situations have enabled those two colonies to surmount all the
obstacles which the oppressive genius of an exclusive company may
have occasionally opposed to their growth. They have enabled
Batavia to surmount the additional disadvantage of perhaps the
most unwholesome climate in the world.
     The English and Dutch companies, though they have
established no considerable colonies, except the two above
mentioned, have both made considerable conquests in the East
Indies. But in the manner in which they both govern their new
subjects, the natural genius of an exclusive company has shown
itself most distinctly. In the spice islands the Dutch are said
to burn all the spiceries which a fertile season produces beyond
what they expect to dispose of in Europe with such a profit as
they think sufficient. In the islands where they have no
settlements, they give a premium to those who collect the young
blossoms and green leaves of the clove and nutmeg trees which
naturally grow there, but which the savage policy has now, it is
said, almost completely extirpated. Even in the islands where
they have settlements they have very much reduced, it is said,
the number of those trees. If the produce even of their own
islands was much greater than what suited their market, the
natives, they suspect, might find means to convey some part of it
to other nations; and the best way, they imagine, to secure their
own monopoly is to take care that no more shall grow than what
they themselves carry to market. By different arts of oppression
they have reduced the population of several of the Moluccas
nearly to the number which is sufficient to supply with fresh
provisions and other necessaries of life their own insignificant
garrisons, and such of their ships as occasionally come there for
a cargo of spices. Under the government even of the Portuguese,
however, those islands are said to have been tolerably well
inhabited. The English company have not yet had time to establish
in Bengal so perfectly destructive a system. The plan of their
government, however, has had exactly the same tendency. It has
not been uncommon, I am well assured, for the chief, that is, the
first clerk of a factory, to order a peasant to plough up a rich
field of poppies and sow it with rice or some other grain. The
pretence was, to prevent a scarcity of provisions; but the real
reason, to give the chief an opportunity of selling at a better
price a large quantity of opium, which he happened then to have
upon hand. Upon other occasions the order has been reversed; and
a rich field of rice or other grain has been ploughed up, in
order to make room for a plantation of poppies; when the chief
foresaw that extraordinary profit was likely to be made by opium.
The servants of the company have upon several occasions attempted
to establish in their own favour the monopoly of some of the most
important branches, not only of the foreign, but of the inland
trade of the country. Had they been allowed to go on, it is
impossible that they should not at some time or another have
attempted to restrain the production of the particular articles
of which they had thus usurped the monopoly, not only to the
quantity which they themselves could purchase, but to that which
they could expect to sell with such a profit as they might think
sufficient. In the course of the century or two, the policy of
the English company would in this manner have probably proved as
completely destructive as that of the Dutch.
     Nothing, however, can be more directly contrary to the real
interest of those companies, considered as the sovereigns of the
countries which they have conquered, than this destructive plan.
In almost all countries the revenue of the sovereign is drawn
from that of the people. The greater the revenue of the people,
therefore, the greater the annual produce of their land and
labour, the more they can afford to the sovereign. It is his
interest, therefore, to increase as much as possible that annual
produce. But if this is the interest of every sovereign, it is
peculiarly so of one whose revenue, like that of the sovereign of
Bengal, arises chiefly from a land-rent. That rent must
necessarily be in proportion to the quantity and value of the
produce, and both the one and the other must depend upon the
extent of the market. The quantity will always be suited with
more or less exactness to the consumption of those who can afford
to pay for it, and the price which they will pay will always be
in proportion to the eagerness of their competition. It is the
interest of such a sovereign, therefore, to open the most
extensive market for the produce of his country, to allow the
most perfect freedom of commerce, in order to increase as much as
possible the number and the competition of buyers; and upon this
account to abolish, not only all monopolies, but all restraints
upon the transportation of the home produce from one part of the
country to another, upon its exportation to foreign countries, or
upon the importation of goods of any kind for which it can be
exchanged. It is in this manner most likely to increase both the
quantity and value of that produce, and consequently of his own
share of it, or of his own revenue.
     But a company of merchants are, it seems, incapable of
considering themselves as sovereigns, even after they have become
such. Trade, or buying in order to sell again, they still
consider as their principal business, and by a strange absurdity
regard the character of the sovereign as but an appendix to that
of the merchant, as something which ought to be made subservient
to it, or by means of which they may be enabled to buy cheaper in
India, and thereby to sell with a better profit in Europe. They
endeavour for this purpose to keep out as much as possible all
competitors from the market of the countries which are subject to
their government, and consequently to reduce, at least, some part
of the surplus produce of those countries to what is barely
sufficient for supplying their own demand, or to what they can
expect to sell in Europe with such a profit as they may think
reasonable. Their mercantile habits draw them in this manner,
almost necessarily, though perhaps insensibly, to prefer upon all
ordinary occasions the little and transitory profit of the
monopolist to the great and permanent revenue of the sovereign,
and would gradually lead them to treat the countries subject to
their government nearly as the Dutch treat the Moluceas. It is
the interest of the East India Company, considered as sovereigns,
that the European goods which are carried to their Indian
dominions should be sold there as cheap as possible; and that the
Indian goods which are brought from thence should bring there as
good a price, or should be sold there as dear as possible. But
the reverse of this is their interest as merchants. As
sovereigns, their interest is exactly the same with that of the
country which they govern. As merchants their interest is
directly opposite to that interest.
     But if the genius of such a government, even as to what
concerns its direction in Europe, is in this manner essentially
and perhaps incurably faulty, that of its administration in India
is still more so. That administration is necessarily composed of
a council of merchants, a profession no doubt extremely
respectable, but which in no country in the world carries along
with it that sort of authority which naturally overawes the
people, and without force commands their willing obedience. Such
a council can command obedience only by the military force with
which they are accompanied, and their government is therefore
necessarily military and despotical. Their proper business,
however, is that of merchants. It is to sell, upon their masters'
account, the European goods consigned to them, and to buy in
return Indian goods for the European market. It is to sell the
one as dear and to buy the other as cheap as possible, and
consequently to exclude as much as possible all rivals from the
particular market where they keep their shop. The genius of the
administration therefore, so far as concerns the trade of the
company, is the same as that of the direction. It tends to make
government subservient to the interest of monopoly, and
consequently to stunt the natural growth of some parts at least
of the surplus produce of the country to what is barely
sufficient for answering the demand of the company.
     All the members of the administration, besides, trade more
or less upon their own account, and it is in vain to prohibit
them from doing so. Nothing can be more completely foolish than
to expect that the clerks of a great counting-house at ten
thousand miles distance, and consequently almost quite out of
sight, should, upon a simple order from their masters, give up at
once doing any sort of business upon their own account, abandon
for ever all hopes of making a fortune, of which they have the
means in their hands, and content themselves with the moderate
salaries which those masters allow them, and which, moderate as
they are, can seldom be augmented, being commonly as large as the
real profits of the company trade can afford. In such
circumstances, to prohibit the servants of the company from
trading upon their own account can have scarce any other effect
than to enable the superior servants, under pretence of executing
their masters' order, to oppress such of the inferior ones as
have had the misfortune to fall under their displeasure. The
servants naturally endeavour to establish the same monopoly in
favour of their own private trade as of the public trade of the
company. If they are suffered to act as they could wish, they
will establish this monopoly openly and directly, by fairly
prohibiting all other people from trading in the articles in
which they choose to deal; and this, perhaps, is the best and
least oppressive way of establishing it. But if by an order from
Europe they are prohibited from doing this, they will,
notwithstanding, endeavour to establish a monopoly of the same
kind, secretly and indirectly, in a way that is much more
destructive to the country. They will employ the whole authority
of government, and pervert the administration of justice, in
order to harass and ruin those who interfere with them in any
branch of commerce, which by means of agents, either concealed,
or at least not publicly avowed, they may choose to carry on. But
the private trade of the servants will naturally extend to a much
greater variety of articles than the public trade of the company.
The public trade of the company extends no further than the trade
with Europe, and comprehends a part only of the foreign trade of
the country. But the private trade of the servants may extend to
all the different branches both of its inland and foreign trade.
The monopoly of the company can tend only to stunt the natural
growth of that part of the surplus produce which, in the case of
a free trade, would be exported to Europe. That of the servants
tends to stunt the natural growth of every part of the produce in
which they choose to deal, of what is destined for home
consumption, as well as of what is destined for exportation; and
consequently to degrade the cultivation of the whole country, and
to reduce the number of its inhabitants. It tends to reduce the
quantity of every sort of produce, even that of the necessaries
of life, whenever the servants of the company choose to deal in
them, to what those servants can both afford to buy and expect to
sell with such a profit as pleases them.
     From the nature of their situation, too, the servants must
be more disposed to support with rigorous severity their own
interest against that of the country which they govern than their
masters can be to support theirs. The country belongs to their
masters, who cannot avoid having some regard for the interest of
what belongs to them. But it does not belong to the servants. The
real interest of their masters, if they were capable of
understanding it, is the same with that of the country, and it is
from ignorance chiefly, and the meanness of mercantile prejudice,
that they ever oppress it. But the real interest of the servants
is by no means the same with that of the country, and the most
perfect information would not necessarily put an end to their
oppressions. The regulations accordingly which have been sent out
from Europe, though they have been frequently weak, have upon
most occasions been well-meaning. More intelligence and perhaps
less good-meaning has sometimes appeared in those established by
the servants in India. It is a very singular government in which
every member of the administration wishes to get out of the
country, and consequently to have done with the government as
soon as he can, and to whose interest, the day after he has left
it and carried his whole fortune with him, it is perfectly
indifferent though the whole country was swallowed up by an
earthquake.
     I mean not, however, by anything which I have here said, to
throw any odious imputation upon the general character of the
servants of the East India Company, and much less upon that of
any particular persons. It is the system of government, the
situation in which they are placed, that I mean to censure, not
the character of those who have acted in it. They acted as their
situation naturally directed, and they who have clamoured the
loudest against them would probably not have acted better
themselves. In war and negotiation, the councils of Madras and
Calcutta have upon several occasions conducted themselves with a
resolution and decisive wisdom which would have done honour to
the senate of Rome in the best days of that republic. The members
of those councils, however, had been bred to professions very
different from war and polities. But their situation alone,
without education, experience, or even example, seems to have
formed in them all at once the great qualities which it required,
and to have inspired them both with abilities and virtues which
they themselves could not well know that they possessed. If upon
some occasions, therefore, it has animated them to actions of
magnanimity which could not well have been expected from them, we
should not wonder if upon others it has prompted them to exploits
of somewhat a different nature.
     Such exclusive companies, therefore, are nuisances in every
respect; always more or less inconvenient to the countries in
which they are established, and destructive to those which have
the misfortune to fall under their government.

                            CHAPTER VIII

                Conclusion of the Mercantile System 

     THOUGH the encouragement of exportation and the
discouragement of importation are the two great engines by which
the mercantile system proposes to enrich every country, yet with
regard to some particular commodities it seems to follow an
opposite plan: to discourage exportation and to encourage
importation. Its ultimate object, however, it pretends, is always
the same, to enrich the country by an advantageous balance of
trade. It discourages the exportation of the materials of
manufacture, and of the instruments of trade, in order to give
our own workmen an advantage, and to enable them to undersell
those of other nations in all foreign markets; and by
restraining, in this manner, the exportation of a few
commodities, of no great price, it proposes to occasion a much
greater and more valuable exportation of others. It encourages
the importation of the materials of manufacture in order that our
own people may be enabled to work them up more cheaply, and
thereby prevent a greater and more valuable importation of the
manufactured commodities. I do not observe, at least in our
Statute Book, any encouragement given to the importation of the
instruments of trade. When manufactures have advanced to a
certain pitch of greatness, the fabrication of the instruments of
trade becomes itself the object of a great number of very
important manufactures. To give any particular encouragement to
the importation of such instruments would interfere too much with
the interest of those manufactures. Such importation, therefore,
instead of being encouraged, has frequently been prohibited. Thus
the importation of wool cards, except from Ireland, or when
brought in as wreck or prize goods, was prohibited by the 3rd of
Edward IV; which prohibition was renewed by the 39th of
Elizabeth, and has been continued and rendered perpetual by
subsequent laws.
     The importation of the materials of manufacture has
sometimes been encouraged by an exemption from the duties to
which other goods are subject, and sometimes by bounties.
     The importation of sheep's wool from several different
countries, of cotton wool from all countries, of undressed flax,
of the greater part of dyeing drugs, of the greater part of
undressed hides from Ireland or the British colonies, of
sealskins from the British Greenland fishery, of pig and bar iron
from the British colonies, as well as of several other materials
of manufacture, has been encouraged by an exemption from all
duties, if properly entered at the custom house. The private
interest of our merchants and manufacturers may, perhaps, have
extorted from the legislature these exemptions as well as the
greater part of our other commercial regulations. They are,
however, perfectly just and reasonable, and if, consistently with
the necessities of the state, they could be extended to all the
other materials of manufacture, the public would certainly be a
gainer.
     The avidity of our great manufacturers, however, has in some
cases extended these exemptions a good deal beyond what can
justly be considered as the rude materials of their work. By the
24th George III, c. 46, a small duty of only one penny the pound
was imposed upon the importation of foreign brown linen yam,
instead of much higher duties to which it had been subjected
before, viz. of sixpence the pound upon sail yarn, of one
shilling the pound upon all French and Dutch yarn, and of two
pounds thirteen shillings and fourpence upon the hundredweight of
all spruce or Muscovia yarn. But our manufacturers were not long
satisfied with this reduction. By the 29th of the same king, c.
15, the same law which gave a bounty upon the exportation of
British and Irish linen of which the price did not exceed
eighteenpence the yard, even this small duty upon the importation
of brown linen yarn was taken away. In the different operations,
however, which are necessary for the preparation of linen yarn, a
good deal more industry is employed than in the subsequent
operation of preparing linen cloth from linen yarn. To say
nothing of the industry of the flax-growers and flax-dressers,
three or four spinners, at least, are necessary in order to keep
one weaver in constant employment; and more than four-fifths of
the whole quantity of labour necessary for the preparation of
linen cloth is employed in that of linen yarn; but our spinners
are poor people, women commonly scattered about in all different
parts of the country, without support or protection. It is not by
the sale of their work, but by that of the complete work of the
weavers, that our great master manufacturers make their profits.
As it is their interest to sell the complete manufacture as dear,
so is it to buy the materials as cheap as possible. By extorting
from the legislature bounties upon the exportation of their own
linen, high duties upon the importation of all foreign linen, and
a total prohibition of the home consumption of some sorts of
French linen, they endeavour to sell their own goods as dear as
possible. By encouraging the importation of foreign linen yarn,
and thereby bringing it into competition with that which is made
by our own people, they endeavour to buy the work of the poor
spinners as cheap as possible. They are as intent to keep down
the wages of their own weavers as the earnings of the poor
spinners, and it is by no means for the benefit of the workman
that they endeavour either to raise the price of the complete
work or to lower that of the rude materials. It is the industry
which is carried on for the benefit of the rich and the powerful
that is principally encouraged by our mercantile system. That
which is carried on for the benefit of the poor and the indigent
is too often either neglected or oppressed.
     Both the bounty upon the exportation of linen, and the
exemption from duty upon the importation of foreign yarn, which
were granted only for fifteen years, but continued by two
different prolongations, expire with the end of the session of
Parliament which shall immediately follow the 24th of June 1786.
     The encouragement given to the importation of the materials
of manufacture by bounties has been principally confined to such
as were imported from our American plantations.
     The first bounties of this kind were those granted about the
beginning of the present century upon the importation of naval
stores from America. Under this denomination were comprehended
timber fit for masts, yards, and bowsprits; hemp; tar, pitch, and
turpentine. The bounty, however, of one pound the ton upon
masting-timber, and that of six pounds the ton upon hemp, were
extended to such as should be imported into England from
Scotland. Both these bounties continued without any variation, at
the same rate, till they were severally allowed to expire; that
upon hemp on the 1st of January 1741, and that upon
masting-timber at the end of the session of Parliament
immediately following the 24th June 1781.
     The bounties upon the importation of tar, pitch, and
turpentine underwent, during their continuance, several
alterations. Originally that upon tar was four pounds the ton;
that upon pitch the same; and that upon turpentine, three pounds
the ton. The bounty of four pounds the ton upon tar was
afterwards confined to such as had been prepared in a particular
manner; that upon other good, clean, and merchantable tar was
reduced to two pounds four shillings the ton. The bounty upon
pitch was likewise reduced to one pound; and that upon turpentine
to one pound ten shillings the ton.
     The second bounty upon the importation of any of the
materials of manufacture, according to the order of time, was
that granted by the 21st George II, c. 30, upon the importation
of indigo from the British plantations. When the plantation
indigo was worth three-fourths of the price of the best French
indigo, it was by this act entitled to a bounty of sixpence the
pound. This bounty, which, like most others, was granted only for
a limited time, was continued by several prolongations, but was
reduced to fourpence the pound. It was allowed to expire with the
end of the session of Parliament which followed the 25th March
1781.
     The third bounty of this kind was that granted (much about
the time that we were beginning sometimes to court and sometimes
to quarrel with our American colonies) by the 4th George III, c.
26, upon the importation of hemp, or undressed flax, from the
British plantations. This bounty was granted for twenty-one
years, from the 24th June 1764 to the 24th June 1785. For the
first seven years it was to be at the rate of eight pounds the
ton, for the second at six pounds, and for the third at four
pounds. It was not extended to Scotland, of which the climate
(although hemp is sometimes raised there in small quantities and
of an inferior quality) is not very fit for that produce. Such a
bounty upon the importation of Scotch flax into England would
have been too great a discouragement to the native produce of the
southern part of the United Kingdom.
     The fourth bounty of this kind was that granted by the 5th
George III, c. 45, upon the importation of wood from America. It
was granted for nine years, from the 1st January 1766 to the 1st
January 1775. During the first three years, it was to be for
every hundred and twenty good deals, at the rate of one pound,
and for every load containing fifty cubic feet of other squared
timber at the rate of twelve shillings. For the second three
years, it was for deals to be at. the rate of fifteen shillings,
and for other squared timber at the rate of eight shillings; and
for the third three years, it was for deals to be at the rate of
ten shillings, and for other squared timber at the rate of five
shillings.
     The fifth bounty of this kind was that granted by the 9th
George III, c. 38, upon the importation of raw silk from the
British plantations. It was granted for twenty-one years, from
the 1st January 1770 to the 1st January 1791. For the first seven
years it was to be at the rate of twenty-five pounds for every
hundred pounds value; for the second at twenty pounds; and for
the third at fifteen pounds. The management of the silk worm, and
the preparation of silk, requires so much hand labour, and labour
is so very dear in America that even this great bounty, I have
been informed, was not likely to produce any considerable effect.
     The sixth bounty of this kind was that granted by 2nd George
III, c. 50, for the importation of pipe, hogshead, and barrel
staves and heading from the British plantations. It was granted
for nine years, from 1st January 1772 to the 1st January 1781.
For the first three years it was for a certain quantity of each
to be at the rate of six pounds; for the second three years at
four pounds; and for the third three years at two pounds.
     The seventh and last bounty of this kind was that granted by
the 19th George III, c. 37, upon the importation of hemp from
Ireland. It was granted in the same manner as that for the
importation of hemp and undressed flax from America, for
twenty-one years, from the 24th June 1779 to the 24th June 1800.
This term is divided, likewise, into three periods of seven years
each; and in each of those periods the rate of the Irish bounty
is the same with that of the American. It does not, however, like
the American bounty, extend to the importation of undressed flax.
It would have been too great a discouragement to the cultivation
of that plant in Great Britain. When this last bounty was
granted, the British and Irish legislatures were not in much
better humour with one another than the British and American had
been before. But this boon to Ireland, it is to be hoped, has
been granted under more fortunate auspices than all those to
America.
     The same commodities upon which we thus gave bounties when
imported from America were subjected to considerable duties when
imported from any other country. The interest of our American
colonies was regarded as the same with that of the mother
country. Their wealth was considered as our wealth. Whatever
money was sent out to them, it was said, came all back to us by
the balance of trade, and we could never become a farthing the
poorer by any expense which we could lay out upon them. They were
our own in every respect, and it was an expense laid out upon the
improvement of our own property and for the profitable employment
of our own people. It is unnecessary, I apprehend, at present to
say anything further in order to expose the folly of a system
which fatal experience has now sufficiently exposed. Had our
American colonies really been a part of Great Britain, those
bounties might have been considered as bounties upon production,
and would still have been liable to all the objections to which
such bounties are liable, but to no other.
     The exportation of the materials of manufacture is sometimes
discouraged by absolute prohibitions, and sometimes by high
duties.
     Our woollen manufacturers have been more successful than any
other class of workmen in persuading the legislature that the
prosperity of the nation depended upon the success and extension
of their particular business. They have not only obtained a
monopoly against the consumers by an absolute prohibition of
importing woollen cloths from any foreign country, but they have
likewise obtained another monopoly against the sheep farmers and
growers of wool by a similar prohibition of the exportation of
live sheep and wool. The severity of many of the laws which have
been enacted for the security of the revenue is very justly
complained of, as imposing heavy penalties upon actions which,
antecedent to the statutes that declared them to be crimes, had
always been understood to be innocent. But the cruellest of our
revenue laws, I will venture to affirm, are mild and gentle in
comparison of some of those which the clamour of our merchants
and manufacturers has extorted from the legislature for the
support of their own absurd and oppressive monopolies. Like the
laws of Draco, these laws may be said to be all written in blood.
     By the 8th of Elizabeth, c. 3, the exporter of sheep, lambs,
or rams was for the first offence to forfeit all his goods for
ever, to suffer a year's imprisonment, and then to have his left
hand cut off in a market town upon a market day, to be there
nailed up; and for the second offence to be adjudged a felon, and
to suffer death accordingly. To prevent the breed of our sheep
from being propagated in foreign countries seems to have been the
object of this law. By the 13th and 14th of Charles II, c. 18,
the exportation of wool was made felony, and the exporter
subjected to the same penalties and forfeitures as a felon.
     For the honour of the national humanity, it is to be hoped
that neither of these statutes were ever executed. The first of
them, however; so far as I know, has never been directly
repealed, and Serjeant Hawkins seems to consider it as still in
force. It may however, perhaps, be considered as virtually
repealed by the 12th of Charles II, c. 32, sect. 3, which,
without expressly taking away the penalties imposed by former
statutes, imposes a new penalty, viz., that of twenty shillings
for every sheep exported, or attempted to be exported, together
with the forfeiture of the sheep and of the owner's share of the
ship. The second of them was expressly repealed by the 7th and
8th of William III, c. 28, sect. 4. By which it is declared that,
"Whereas the statute of the 13th and 14th of King Charles II,
made against the exportation of wool, among other things in the
said act mentioned, doth enact the same to be deemed felony; by
the severity of which penalty the prosecution of offenders hath
not been so effectually put in execution: Be it, therefore,
enacted by the authority aforesaid, that so much of the said act,
which relates to the making the said offence felony, be repealed
and made void."
     The penalties, however, which are either imposed by this
milder statute, or which, though imposed by former statutes, are
not repealed by this one, are still sufficiently severe. Besides
the forfeiture of the goods, the exporter incurs the penalty of
three shillings for every pound weight of wool either exported or
attempted to be exported, that is about four or five times the
value. Any merchant or other person convicted of this offence is
disabled from requiring any debt or account belonging to him from
any factor or other person. Let his fortune be what it will,
whether he is or is not able to pay those heavy penalties, the
law means to ruin him completely. But as the morals of the great
body of the people are not yet so corrupt as those of the
contrivers of this statute, I have not heard that any advantage
has ever been taken of this clause. If the person convicted of
this offence is not able to pay the penalties within three months
after judgment, he is to be transported for seven years, and if
he returns before the expiration of that term, he is liable to
the pains of felony, without benefit of clergy. The owner of the
ship, knowing this offence, forfeits all his interest in the ship
and furniture. The master and mariners, knowing this offence,
forfeit all their goods and chattels, and suffer three months'
imprisonment. By a subsequent statute the master suffers six
months' imprisonment.
     In order to prevent exportation, the whole inland commerce
of wool is laid under very burdensome and oppressive
restrictions. It cannot be packed in any box, barrel, cask, case,
chest, or any other package, but only in packs of leather or
pack-cloth, on which must be marked on the outside the words wool
or yam, in large letters not less than three inches long, on pain
of forfeiting the same and the package, and three shillings for
every pound weight, to be paid by the owner or packer. It cannot
be loaden on any horse or cart, or carried by land within five
miles of the coast, but between sun-rising and sun-setting, on
pain of forfeiting the same, the horses and carriages. The
hundred next adjoining to the sea-coast, out of or through which
the wool is carried or exported, forfeits twenty pounds, if the
wool is under the value of ten pounds; and if of greater value,
then treble that value, together with treble costs, to be sued
for within the year. The execution to be against any two of the
inhabitants, whom the sessions must reimburse, by an assessment
on the other inhabitants, as in the cases of robbery. And if any
person compounds with the hundred for less than this penalty, he
is to be imprisoned for five years; and any other person may
prosecute. These regulations take place through the whole
kingdom.
     But in the particular counties of Kent and Sussex, the
restrictions are still more troublesome. Every owner of wool
within ten miles of the sea-coast must given an account in
writing, three days after shearing to the next officer of the
customs, of the number of his fleeces, and of the places where
they are lodged. And before he removes any part of them he must
give the like notice of the number and weight of the fleeces, and
of the name and abode of the person to whom they are sold, and of
the place to which it is intended they should be carried. No
person within fifteen miles of the sea, in the said counties, can
buy any wool before he enters into bond to the king that no part
of the wool which he shall so buy shall be sold by him to any
other person within fifteen miles of the sea. If any wool is
found carrying towards the sea-side in the said counties, unless
it has been entered and security given as aforesaid, it is
forfeited, and the offender also forfeits three shillings for
every pound weight. If any person lays any wool not entered as
aforesaid within fifteen miles of the sea, it must be seized and
forfeited; and if, after such seizure, any person claim the same,
he must give security to the Exchequer that if he is cast upon
trial he shall pay treble costs, besides all other penalties.
     When such restrictions are imposed upon the inland trade,
the coasting trade, we may believe, cannot be left very free.
Every owner of wool who carries or causes to be carried any wool
to any port or place on the seacoast, in order to be from thence
transported by sea to any other place or port on the coast, must
first cause an entry thereof to be made at the port from whence
it is intended to be conveyed, containing the weight, marks, and
number of the packages, before he brings the same within five
miles of that port, on pain of forfeiting the same, and also the
horses, carts, and other carriages; and also of suffering and
forfeiting as by the other laws in force against the exportation
of wool. This law, however (1st William III, c. 32), is so very
indulgent as to declare that, "This shall not hinder any person
from carrying his wool home from the place of shearing, though it
be within five miles of the sea, provided that in ten days after
shearing, and before he remove the wool, he do under his hand
certify to the next officer of the customs, the true number of
fleeces, and where it is housed; and do not remove the same,
without certifying to such officer, under his hand, his intention
so to do, three days before." Bond must be given that the wool to
be carried coastways is to be landed at the particular port for
which it is entered outwards; and if any part of it is landed
without the presence of an officer, not only the forfeiture of
the wool is incurred as in other goods, but the usual additional
penalty of three shillings for every pound weight is likewise
incurred.
     Our woollen manufactures, in order to justify their demand
of such extraordinary restrictions and regulations, confidently
asserted that English wool was of a peculiar quality, superior to
that of any other country; that the wool of other countries could
not, without some mixture of it, be wrought up into any tolerable
manufacture; that fine cloth could not be made without it; that
England, therefore, if the exportation of it could be totally
prevented, could monopolize to herself almost the whole woollen
trade of the world; and thus, having no rivals, could sell at
what price she pleased, and in a short time acquire the most
incredible degree of wealth by the most advantageous balance of
trade. This doctrine, like most other doctrines which are
confidently asserted by any considerable number of people, was,
and still continues to be, most implicitly believed by a much
greater number- by almost all those who are either unacquainted
with the woollen trade, or who have not made particular
inquiries. It is, however, so perfectly false that English wool
is in any respect necessary for the making of fine cloth that it
is altogether unfit for it. Fine cloth is made altogether of
Spanish wool. English wool cannot be even so mixed with Spanish
wool as to enter into the composition without spoiling and
degrading, in some degree, the fabric of the cloth.
     It has been shown in the foregoing part of this work that
the effect of these regulations has been to depress the price of
English wool, not only below what it naturally would be in the
present times, but very much below what it actually was in the
time of Edward III. The price of Scots wool, when in consequence
of the union it became subject to the same regulations, is said
to have fallen about one half. It is observed by the very
accurate and intelligent author of the Memoirs of Wool, the
Reverend Mr. John Smith, that the price of the best English wool
in England is generally below what wool of a very inferior
quality commonly sells for in the market of Amsterdam. To depress
the price of this commodity below what may be called its natural
and proper price was the avowed purpose of those regulations; and
there seems to be no doubt of their having produced the effect
that was expected from them.
     This reduction of price, it may perhaps be thought, by
discouraging the growing of wool, must have reduced very much the
annual produce of that commodity, though not below what it
formerly was, yet below what, in the present state of things, it
probably would have been, had it, in consequence of an open and
free market, been allowed to rise to the natural and proper
price. I am, however, disposed to believe that the quantity of
the annual produce cannot have been much, though it may perhaps
have been a little, affected by these regulations. The growing of
wool is not the chief purpose for which the sheep farmer employs
his industry and stock. He expects his profit not so much from
the price of the fleece as from that of the carcass; and the
average or ordinary price of the latter must even, in many cases,
make up to him whatever deficiency there may be in the average or
ordinary price of the former. It has been observed in the
foregoing part of this work that, "Whatever regulations tend to
sink the price, either of wool or of raw hides, below what it
naturally would be, must, in an improved and cultivated country,
have some tendency to raise the price of butcher's meat. The
price both of the great and small cattle which are fed on
improved and cultivated land must be sufficient to pay the rent
which the landlord, and the profit which the farmer has reason to
expect from improved and cultivated land. If it is not, they will
soon cease to feed them. Whatever part of this price, therefore,
is not paid by the wool and the hide must be paid by the carcass.
The less there is paid for the one, the more must be paid for the
other. In what manner this price is to be divided upon the
different parts of the beast is indifferent to the landlords and
farmers, provided it is all paid to them. In an improved and
cultivated country, therefore, their interest as landlords and
farmers cannot be much affected by such regulations, though their
interest as consumers may by the rise in the price of
provisions." According to this reasoning, therefore, this
degradation in the price of wool is not likely, in an improved
and cultivated country, to occasion any diminution in the annual
produce of that commodity, except so far as, by raising the price
of mutton, it may somewhat diminish the demand for, and
consequently the production of, that particular species of
butcher's meat. Its effect, however, even in this way, it is
probable, is not very considerable.
     But though its effect upon the quantity of the annual
produce may not have been very considerable, its effect upon the
quality, it may perhaps be thought, must necessarily have been
very great. The degradation in the quality of English wool, if
not below what it was in former times, yet below what it
naturally would have been in the present state of improvement and
cultivation, must have been, it may perhaps be supposed, very
nearly in proportion to the degradation of price. As the quality
depends upon the breed, upon the pasture, and upon the management
and cleanliness of the sheep, during the whole progress of the
growth of the fleece, the attention to these circumstances, it
may naturally enough be imagined, can never be greater than in
proportion to the recompense which the price of the fleece is
likely to make for the labour and expense which that attention
requires. It happens, however, that the goodness of the fleece
depends, in a great measure, upon the health, growth, and bulk of
the animal; the same attention which is necessary for the
improvement of the carcase is, in some respects, sufficient for
that of the fleece. Notwithstanding the degradation of price,
English wool is said to have been improved considerably during
the course even of the present century. The improvement might
perhaps have been greater if the price had been better; but the
lowness of price, though it may have obstructed, yet certainly it
has not altogether prevented that improvement.
     The violence of these regulations, therefore, seems to have
affected neither the quantity nor the quality of the annual
produce of wool so much as it might have been expected to do
(though I think it probable that it may have affected the latter
a good deal more than the former); and the interest of the
growers of wool, though it must have been hurt in some degree,
seems, upon the whole, to have been much less hurt than could
well have been imagined.
     These considerations, however, will not justify the absolute
prohibition of the exportation of wool. But they will fully
justify the imposition of a considerable tax upon that
exportation.
     To hurt in any degree the interest of any one order of
citizens, for no other purpose but to promote that of some other,
is evidently contrary to that justice and equality of treatment
which the sovereign owes to all the different orders of his
subjects. But the prohibition certainly hurts, in some degree,
the interest of the growers of wool, for no other purpose but to
promote that of the manufacturers.
     Every different order of citizens is bound to contribute to
the support of the sovereign or commonwealth. A tax of five, or
even of ten shillings upon the exportation of every ton of wool
would produce a very considerable revenue to the sovereign. It
would hurt the interest of the growers somewhat less than the
prohibition, because it would not probably lower the price of
wool quite so much. It would afford a sufficient advantage to the
manufacturer, because, though he might not buy his wool
altogether so cheap as under the prohibition, he would still buy
it, at least, five or ten shillings cheaper than any foreign
manufacturer could buy it, besides saving the freight and
insurance, which the other would be obliged to pay. It is scarce
possible to devise a tax which could produce any considerable
revenue to the sovereign, and at the same time occasion so little
inconveniency to anybody.
     The prohibition, notwithstanding all the penalties which
guard it, does not prevent the exportation of wool. It is
exported, it is well known, in great quantities. The great
difference between the price in the home and that in the foreign
market presents such a temptation to smuggling that all the
rigour of the law cannot prevent it. This illegal exportation is
advantageous to nobody but the smuggler. A legal exportation
subject to a tax, by affording a revenue to the sovereign, and
thereby saving the imposition of some other, perhaps, more
burdensome and inconvenient taxes might prove advantageous to all
the different subjects of the state.
     The exportation of fuller's earth or fuller's clay, supposed
to be necessary for preparing and cleansing the woolen
manufactures, has been subjected to nearly the same penalties as
the exportation of wool. Even tobacco-pipe clay, though
acknowledged to be different from fuller's clay, yet, on account
of their resemblance, and because fuller's clay might sometimes
be exported as tobacco-pipe clay, has been laid under the same
prohibitions and penalties.
     By the 13th and 14th of Charles II, c. 7, the exportation,
not only of raw hides, but of tanned leather, except in the shape
of boots, shoes, or slippers, was prohibited; and the law gave a
monopoly to our bootmakers and shoemakers, not only against our
graziers, but against our tanners. By subsequent statutes our
tanners have got themselves exempted from this monopoly upon
paying a small tax of only one shilling on the hundred-weight of
tanned leather, weighing one hundred and twelve pounds. They have
obtained likewise the drawback of two-thirds of the excise duties
imposed upon their commodity even when exported without further
manufacture. All manufactures of leather may be exported duty
free; and the exporter is besides entitled to the drawback of the
whole duties of excise. Our graziers still continue subject to
the old monopoly. Graziers separated from one another, and
dispersed through all the different corners of the country,
cannot, without great difficulty, combine together for the
purpose either of imposing monopolies upon their fellow citizens,
or of exempting themselves from such as may have been imposed
upon them by other people. Manufacturers of all kinds, collected
together in numerous bodies in all great cities, easily can. Even
the horns of cattle are prohibited to be exported; and the two
insignificant trades of the horner and combmaker enjoy, in this
respect, a monopoly against the graziers.
     Restraints, either by prohibitions or by taxes, upon the
exportation of goods which are partially, but not completely
manufactured, are not peculiar to the manufacture of leather. As
long as anything remains to be done, in order to fit any
commodity for immediate use and consumption, our manufacturers
think that they themselves ought to have the doing of it. Woolen
yarn and worsted are prohibited to be exported under the same
penalties as wool. Even white cloths are subject to a duty upon
exportation, and our dyers have so far obtained a monopoly
against our clothiers. Our clothiers would probably have been
able to defend themselves against it, but it happens that the
greater part of our principal clothiers are themselves likewise
dyers. Watch-cases, clockcases, and dial-plates for clocks and
watches have been prohibited to be exported. Our clock-makers and
watch-makers are, it seems, unwilling that the price of this sort
of workmanship should be raised upon them by the competition of
foreigners.
     By some old statutes of Edward M, Henry VIII, and Edward VI,
the exportation of all metals was prohibited. Lead and tin were
alone excepted probably on account of the great abundance of
those metals, in the exportation of which a considerable part of
the trade of the kingdom in those days consisted. For the
encouragement of the mining trade, the 5th of William and Mary,
c. 17, exempted from the prohibition iron, copper, and mundic
metal made from British ore. The exportation of all sorts of
copper bars, foreign as well as British, was afterwards permitted
by the 9th and 10th of William III, c. 26. The exportation of
unmanufactured brass, of what is called gun-metal, bell-metal,
and shroff-metal, still continues to be prohibited. Brass
manufactures of all sorts may be exported duty free.
     The exportation of the materials of manufacture, where it is
not altogether prohibited, is in many cases subjected to
considerable duties.
     By the 8th George I, c. 15, the exportation of all goods,
the produce or manufacture of Great Britain, upon which any
duties had been imposed by former statutes, was rendered duty
free. The following goods, however, were excepted: alum, lead,
lead ore, tin, tanned leather, copperas, coals, wool cards, white
woolen cloths, lapis calaminaris, skins of all sorts, glue, coney
hair or wool, hares' wool, hair of all sorts, horses, and
litharge of lead. If you expect horses, all these are either
materials of manufacture, or incomplete manufactures (which may
be considered as materials for still further manufacture), or
instruments of trade. This statute leaves them subject to all the
old duties which had ever been imposed upon them, the old subsidy
and one per cent outwards.
     By the same statute a great number of foreign drugs for
dyers' use are exempted from all duties upon importation. Each of
them, however, is afterwards subjected to a certain duty, not
indeed a very heavy one, upon exportation. Our dyers, it seems,
while they thought it for their interest to encourage the
importation of those drugs, by an exemption from all duties,
thought it likewise for their interest to throw some small
discouragement upon their exportation. The avidity, however,
which suggested this notable piece of mercantile ingenuity, most
probably disappointed itself of its object. It necessarily taught
the importers to be more careful than they might otherwise have
been that their importation should not exceed what was necessary
for the supply of the home market. The home market was at all
times likely to be more scantily supplied; the commodities were
at all times likely to be somewhat dearer there than they would
have been had the exportation been rendered as free as the
importation.
     By the above-mentioned statute, gum senega, or gum arabic,
being among the enumerated dyeing drugs, might be imported duty
free. They were subjected, indeed, to a small poundage duty,
amounting only to threepence in the hundredweight upon their
re-exportation. France enjoyed, at that time, an exclusive trade
to the country most productive of those drugs, that which lies in
the neighbourhood of the Senegal; and the British market could
not easily be supplied by the immediate importation of them from
the place of growth. By the 25th George II, therefore, gum senega
was allowed to be imported (contrary to the general dispositions
of the Act of Navigation) from any part of Europe. As the law,
however, did not mean to encourage this species of trade, so
contrary to the general principles of the mercantile policy of
England, it imposed a duty of ten shillings the hundredweight
upon such importation, and no part of this duty was to be
afterwards drawn back upon its exportation. The successful war
which began in 1755 gave Great Britain the same exclusive trade
to those countries which France had enjoyed before. Our
manufacturers, as soon as the peace was made, endeavoured to
avail themselves of this advantage, and to establish a monopoly
in their own favour both against the growers and against the
importers of this commodity. By the 5th George III, therefore, c.
37, the exportation of gum senega from his Majesty's dominions in
Africa was confined to Great Britain, and was subjected to all
the same restrictions, regulations, forfeitures, and penalties as
that of the enumerated commodities of the British colonies in
America and the West Indies. Its importation, indeed, was
subjected to a small duty of sixpence the hundredweight, but its
re-exportation was subjected to the enormous duty of one pound
ten shillings the hundredweight. It was the intention of our
manufacturers that the whole produce of those countries should be
imported into Great Britain, and, in order that they themselves
might be enabled to buy it at their own price, that no part of it
should be exported again but at such an expense as would
sufficiently discourage that exportation. Their avidity, however,
upon this, as well as upon many other occasions, disappointed
itself of its object. This enormous duty presented such a
temptation to smuggling that great quantities of this commodity
were clandestinely exported, probably to all the manufacturing
countries of Europe, put particularly to Holland, not only from
Great Britain but from Africa. Upon this account, by the 14th
George III, c. 10, this duty upon exportation was reduced to five
shillings the hundredweight.
     In the book of rates, according to which the Old Subsidy was
levied, beaver skins were estimated at six shillings and
eightpence a piece, and the different subsidies and imposts,
which before the year 1722 had been laid upon their importation,
amounted to one-fifth part of the rate, or to sixteenpence upon
each skin; all of which, except half the Old Subsidy, amounting
only to twopence, was drawn back upon exportation. This duty upon
the importation of so important a material of manufacture had
been thought too high, and in the year 1722 the rate was reduced
to two shillings and sixpence, which reduced the duty upon
importation to sixpence, and of this only one half was to be
drawn back upon exportation. The same successful war put the
country most productive of beaver under the dominion of Great
Britain, and beaver skins being among the enumerated commodities,
their exportation from America was consequently confined to the
market of Great Britain. Our manufacturers soon bethought
themselves of the advantage which they might make of this
circumstance, and in the year 1764 the duty upon the importation
of beaver-skin was reduced to one penny, but the duty upon
exportation was raised to sevenpence each skin, without any
drawback of the duty upon importation. By the same law, a duty of
eighteenpence the pound was imposed upon the exportation of
beaverwool or wombs, without making any alteration in the duty
upon the importation of that commodity, which, when imported by
Britain and in British shipping, amounted at that time to between
fourpence and fivepence the piece.
     Coals may be considered both as a material of manufacture
and as an instrument of trade. Heavy duties, accordingly, have
been imposed upon their exportation, amounting at present (1783)
to more than five shillings the ton, or to more than fifteen
shillings the chaldron, Newcastle measures, which is in most
cases more than the original value of the commodity at the coal
pit, or even at the shipping port for exportation.
     The exportation, however, of the instruments of trade,
properly so called, is commonly restrained, not by high duties,
but by absolute prohibitions. Thus by the 7th and 8th of William
III, c. 20, sect. 8, the exportation of frames or engines for
knitting gloves or stockings is prohibited under the penalty, not
only of the forfeiture of such frames or engines so exported, or
attempted to be exported, but of forty pounds, one half to the
king, the other to the person who shall inform or sue for the
same. In the same manner, by the 14th George III, c. 71, the
exportation to foreign parts of any utensils made use of in the
cotton, linen, woollen, and silk manufactures is prohibited under
the penalty, not only of the forfeiture of such utensils, but of
two hundred pounds, to be paid by the person who shall offend in
this manner, and likewise of two hundred pounds to be paid by the
master of the ship who shall knowingly suffer such utensils to be
loaded on board his ship.
     When such heavy penalties were imposed upon the exportation
of the dead instruments of trade, it could not well be expected
that the living instrument, the artificer, should be allowed to
go free. Accordingly, by the 5th George I, c. 27, the person who
shall be convicted of enticing any artificer of, or in any of the
manufactures of Great Britain, to go into any foreign parts in
order to practise or teach his trade, is liable for the first
offence to be fined in any sum not exceeding one hundred pounds,
and to three months' imprisonment, and until the fine shall be
paid; and for the second offence, to be fined in any sum at the
discretion of the court, and to imprisonment for twelve months,
and until the fine shall be paid. By the 23rd George II, c. 13,
this penalty is increased for the first offence to five hundred
pounds for every artificer so enticed, and to twelve months'
imprisonment, and until the fine shall be paid; and for the
second offence, to one thousand pounds, and to two years'
imprisonment, and until the fine shall be paid.
     By the former of those two statutes, upon proof that any
person has been enticing any artificer, or that any artificer has
promised or contracted to go into foreign parts for the purposes
aforesaid, such artificer may be obliged to give security at the
discretion of the court that he shall not go beyond the seas, and
may be committed to prison until he give such security.
     If any artificer has gone beyond the seas, and is exercising
or teaching his trade in any foreign country, upon warning being
given to him by any of his Majesty's ministers or consuls abroad,
or by one of his Majesty's Secretaries of State for the time
being, if he does not, within six months after such warning,
return into this realm, and from thenceforth abide and inhabit
continually within the same, he is from thenceforth declared
incapable of taking any legacy devised to him within this
kingdom, or of being executor or administrator to any person, or
of taking any lands within this kingdom by descent, device, or
purchase. He likewise forfeits to the king all his lands, goods,
and chattels, is declared an alien in every respect, and is put
out of the king's protection.
     It is unnecessary, I imagine, to observe how contrary such
regulations are to the boasted liberty of the subject, of which
we affect to be so very jealous; but which, in this case, is so
plainly sacrificed to the futile interests of our merchants and
manufacturers.
     The laudable motive of all these regulations is to extend
our own manufactures, not by their own improvement, but by the
depression of those of all our neighbours, and by putting an end,
as much as possible, to the troublesome competition of such
odious and disagreeable rivals. Our master manufacturers think it
reasonable that they themselves should have the monopoly of the
ingenuity of all their countrymen. Though by restraining, in some
trades, the number of apprentices which can be employed at one
time, and by imposing the necessity of a long apprenticeship in
all trades, they endeavour, all of them, to confine the knowledge
of their respective employments to as small a number as possible;
they are unwilling, however, that any part of this small number
should go abroad to instruct foreigners.
     Consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production;
and the interest of the producer ought to be attended to only so
far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer.
The maxim is so perfectly self evident that it would be absurd to
attempt to prove it. But in the mercantile system the interest of
the consumer is almost constantly sacrificed to that of the
producer; and it seems to consider production, and not
consumption, as the ultimate end and object of all industry and
commerce.
     In the restraints upon the importation of all foreign
commodities which can come into competition with those of our own
growth or manufacture, the interest of the home consumer is
evidently sacrificed to that of the producer. It is altogether
for the benefit of the latter that the former is obliged to pay
that enhancement of price which this monopoly almost always
occasions.
     It is altogether for the benefit of the producer that
bounties are granted upon the exportation of some of his
productions. The home consumer is obliged to pay, first, the tax
which is necessary for paying the bounty, and secondly, the still
greater tax which necessarily arises from the enhancement of the
price of the commodity in the home market.
     By the famous treaty of commerce with Portugal, the consumer
is prevented by high duties from purchasing of a neighbouring
country a commodity which our own climate does not produce, but
is obliged to purchase it of a distant country, though it is
acknowledged that the commodity of the distant country is of a
worse quality than that of the near one. The home consumer is
obliged to submit to this inconveniency in order that the
producer may import into the distant country some of his
productions upon more advantageous terms than he would otherwise
have been allowed to do. The consumer, too, is obliged to pay
whatever enhancement in the price if those very productions this
forced exportation may occasion in the home market.
     But in the system of laws which has been established for the
management of our American and West Indian colonies, the interest
of the home consumer has been sacrificed to that of the producer
with a more extravagant profusion than in all our other
commercial regulations. A great empire has been established for
the sole purpose of raising up a nation of customers who should
be obliged to buy from the shops of our different producers all
the goods with which these could supply them. For the sake of
that little enhancement of price which this monopoly might afford
our producers, the home consumers have been burdened with the
whole expense of maintaining and defending that empire. For this
purpose, and for this purpose only, in the two last wars, more
than two hundred millions have been spent, and a new debt of more
than a hundred and seventy millions has been contracted over and
above all that had been expended for the same purpose in former
wars. The interest of this debt alone is not only greater than
the whole extraordinary profit which it ever could be pretended
was made by the monopoly of the colony trade, but than the whole
value of that trade, or than the whole value of the goods which
at an average have been annually exported to the colonies.
     It cannot be very difficult to determine who have been the
contrivers of this whole mercantile system; not the consumers, we
may believe, whose interest has been entirely neglected; but the
producers, whose interest has been so carefully attended to; and
among this latter class our merchants and manufacturers have been
by far the principal architects. In the mercantile regulations,
which have been taken notice of in this chapter, the interest of
our manufacturers has been most peculiarly attended to; and the
interest, not so much of the consumers, as that of some other
sets of producers, has been sacrificed to it.

                              CHAPTER IX

Of the Agricultural Systems, or of those Systems of Political
Economy which represent the Produce of Land as either the sole or
the principal Source of the Revenue and Wealth every Country 

     THE agricultural systems of political economy will not
require so long an explanation as that which I have thought it
necessary to bestow upon the mercantile or commercial system.
     That system which represents the produce of land as the sole
source of the revenue and wealth of every country has, so far as
I know, never been adopted by any nation, and it at present
exists only in the speculations of a few men of great learning
and ingenuity in France. It would not, surely, be worth while to
examine at great length the errors of a system which never has
done, and probably never will do, any harm in any part of the
world. I shall endeavour to explain, however, as distinctly as I
can, the great outlines of this very ingenious system.
     Mr. Colbert, the famous minister of Louis XIV, was a man of
probity, of great industry and knowledge of detail, of great
experience and acuteness in the examination of public accounts,
and of abilities, in short, every way fitted for introducing
method and good order into the collection and expenditure of the
public revenue. That minister had unfortunately embraced all the
prejudices of the mercantile system, in its nature and essence a
system of restraint and regulation, and such as could scarce fail
to be agreeable to a laborious and plodding man of business, who
had been accustomed to regulate the different departments of
public offices, and to establish the necessary checks and
controls for confining each to its proper sphere. The industry
and commerce of a great country he endeavoured to regulate upon
the same model as the departments of a public office; and instead
of allowing every man to pursue his own interest in his own way,
upon the liberal plan of equality, liberty, and justice, he
bestowed upon certain branches of industry extraordinary
privileges, while he laid others under as extraordinary
restraints. He was not only disposed, like other European
ministers, to encourage more the industry of the towns than that
of the country; but, in order to support the industry of the
towns, he was willing even to depress and keep down that of the
country. In order to render provisions cheap to the inhabitants
of the towns, and thereby to encourage manufactures and foreign
commerce, he prohibited altogether the exportation of corn, and
thus excluded the inhabitants of the country from every foreign
market for by far the most important part of the produce of their
industry. This prohibition, joined to the restraints imposed by
the ancient provincial laws of France upon the transportation of
corn from one province to another, and to the arbitrary and
degrading taxes which are levied upon the cultivators in almost
all the provinces, discouraged and kept down the agriculture of
that country very much below the state to which it would
naturally have risen in so very fertile a soil and so very happy
a climate. This state of discouragement and depression was felt
more or less in every different part of the country, and many
different inquiries were set on foot concerning the causes of it.
One of those causes appeared to be the preference given, by the
institutions of Mr. Colbert, to the industry of the towns above
that of the country.
     If the rod be bent too much one way, says the proverb, in
order to make it straight you must bend it as much the other. The
French philosophers, who have proposed the system which
represents agriculture as the sole source of the revenue and
wealth of every country, seem to have adopted this proverbial
maxim; and as in the plan of Mr. Colbert the industry of the
towns was certainly overvalued in comparison with that of the
country; so in their system it seems to be as certainly
undervalued.
     The different orders of people who have ever been supposed
to contribute in any respect towards the annual produce of the
land and labour of the country, they divide into three classes.
The first is the class of the proprietors of land. The second is
the class of the cultivators, of farmers and country labourers,
whom they honour with the peculiar appellation of the productive
class. The third is the class of artificers, manufacturers, and
merchants, whom they endeavour to degrade by the humiliating
appellation of the barren or unproductive class.
     The class of proprietors contributes to the annual produce
by the expense which they may occasionally lay out upon the
improvement of the land, upon the buildings, drains, enclosures,
and other ameliorations, which they may either make or maintain
upon it, and by means of which the cultivators are enabled, with
the same capital, to raise a greater produce, and consequently to
pay a greater rent. This advanced rent may be considered as the
interest or profit due to the proprietor upon the expense or
capital which he thus employs in the improvement of his land.
Such expenses are in this system called ground expenses (depenses
foncieres.)
     The cultivators or farmers contribute to the annual produce
by what are in this system called the original and annual
expenses (depenses primitives et depenses annuelles) which they
lay out upon the cultivation of the land. The original expenses
consist in the instruments of husbandry, in the stock of cattle,
in the seed, and in the maintenance of the farmer's family,
servants, and cattle during at least a great part of the first
year of his occupancy, or till he can receive some return from
the land. The annual expenses consist in the seed, in the wear
and tear of the instruments of husbandry, and in the annual
maintenance of the farmer's servants and cattle, and of his
family too, so far as any part of them can be considered as
servants employed in cultivation. That part of the produce of the
land which remains to him after paying the rent ought to be
sufficient, first, to replace to him within a reasonable time, at
least during the term of his occupancy, the whole of his original
expenses, together with the ordinary profits of stock; and,
secondly, to replace to him annually the whole of his annual
expenses, together likewise with the ordering profits of stock.
Those two sorts of expenses are two capitals which the farmer
employs in cultivation; and unless they are regularly restored to
him, together with a reasonable profit, he cannot carry on his
employment upon a level with other employments; but, from a
regard to his own interest, must desert it as soon as possible
and seek some other. That part of the produce of the land which
is thus necessary for enabling the farmer to continue his
business ought to be considered as a fund sacred to cultivation,
which, if the landlord violates, he necessarily reduces the
produce of his own land, and in a few years not only disables the
farmer from paying this racked rent, but from paying the
reasonable rent which he might otherwise have got for his land.
The rent which properly belongs to the landlord is no more than
the net produce which remains after paying in the completest
manner all the necessary expenses which must be previously laid
out in order to raise the gross or the whole produce. It is
because the labour of the cultivators, over and above paying
completely all those necessary expenses, affords a net produce of
this kind that this class of people are in this system peculiarly
distinguished by the honourable appellation of the productive
class. Their original and annual expenses are for the same reason
called, in this system, productive expenses, because, over and
above replacing their own value, they occasion the annual
reproduction of this net produce.
     The ground expenses, as they are called, or what the
landlord lays out upon the improvement of his land, are in this
system, too, honoured with the appellation of productive
expenses. Till the whole of those expenses, together with the
ordinary profits of stock, have been completely repaid to him by
the advanced rent which he gets from his land, that advanced rent
ought to be regarded as sacred and inviolable, both by the church
and by the king; ought to be subject neither to tithe nor to
taxation. If it is otherwise, by discouraging the improvement of
land the church discourages the future increase of her own
tithes, and the king the future increase of his own taxes. As in
a well-ordered state of things, therefore, those ground expenses,
over and above reproducing in the completest manner their own
value, occasion likewise after a certain time a reproduction of a
net produce, they are in this system considered as productive
expenses.
     The ground expenses of the landlord, however, together with
the original and the annual expenses of the farmer, are the only
three sorts of expenses which in this system are considered as
productive. All other expenses and all other orders of people,
even those who in the common apprehensions of men are regarded as
the most productive, are in this account of things represented as
altogether barren and unproductive.
     Artificers and manufacturers in particular, whose industry,
in the common apprehensions of men, increases so much the value
of the rude produce of land, are in this system represented as a
class of people altogether barren and unproductive. Their labour,
it is said, replaces only the stock which employs them, together
with its ordinary profits. That stock consists in the materials,
tools, and wages advanced to them by their employer; and is the
fund destined for their employment and maintenance. Its profits
are the fund destined for the maintenance of their employer.
Their employer, as he advances to them the stock of materials,
tools, and wages necessary for their employment, so he advances
to himself what is necessary for his own maintenance, and this
maintenance he generally proportions to the profit which he
expects to make by the price of their work. Unless its price
repays to him the maintenance which he advances to himself, as
well as the materials, tools, and wages which he advances to his
workmen, it evidently does not repay to him the whole expense
which he lays out upon it. The profits of manufacturing stock
therefore are not, like the rent of land, a net produce which
remains after completely repaying the whole expense which must be
laid out in order to obtain them. The stock of the farmer yields
him a profit as well as that of the master manufacturer; and it
yields a rent likewise to another person, which that of the
master manufacturer does not. The expense, therefore, laid out in
employing and maintaining artificers and manufacturers does no
more than continue, if one may say so, the existence of its own
value, and does not produce any new value. It is therefore
altogether a barren and unproductive expense. The expense, on the
contrary, laid out in employing farmers and country labourers,
over and above continuing the existence of its own value,
produces a new value, the rent of the landlord. It is therefore a
productive expense.
     Mercantile stock is equally barren and unproductive with
manufacturing stock. It only continues the existence of its own
value, without producing any new value. Its profits are only the
repayment of the maintenance which its employer advances to
himself during the time that he employs it, or till he receives
the returns of it. They are only the repayment of a part of the
expense which must be laid out in employing it.
     The labour of artificers and manufacturers never adds
anything to the value of the whole annual amount of the rude
produce of the land. It adds, indeed, greatly to the value of
some particular parts of it. But the consumption which in the
meantime it occasions of other parts is precisely equal to the
value which it adds to those parts; so that the value of the
whole amount is not, at any one moment of time, in the least
augmented by it. The person who works the lace of a pair of fine
ruffles, for example, will sometimes raise the value of perhaps a
pennyworth of flax to thirty pounds sterling. But though at first
sight he appears thereby to multiply the value of a part of the
rude produce about seven thousand and two hundred times, he in
reality adds nothing to the value of the whole annual amount of
the rude produce. The working of that lace costs him perhaps two
years' labour. The thirty pounds which he gets for it when it is
finished is no more than the repayment of the subsistence which
he advances to himself during the two years that he is employed
about it. The value which, by every day's, month's, or year's
labour, he adds to the flax does no more than replace the value
of his own consumption during that day, month, or year. At no
moment of time, therefore, does he add anything to the value of
the whole annual amount of the rude produce of the land: the
portion of that produce which he is continually consuming being
always equal to the value which he is continually producing. The
extreme poverty of the greater part of the persons employed in
this expensive though trifling manufacture may satisfy us that
the price of their work does not in ordinary cases exceed the
value of their subsistence. It is otherwise with the work of
farmers and country labourers. The rent of the landlord is a
value which, in ordinary cases, it is continually producing, over
and above replacing, in the most complete manner, the whole
consumption, the whole expense laid out upon the employment and
maintenance both of the workmen and of their employer.
     Artificers, manufacturers, and merchants can augment the
revenue and wealth of their society by parsimony only; or, as it
in this system, by privation, that is, by depriving themselves a
part of the funds destined for their own subsistence. They
annually reproduce nothing but those funds. Unless, therefore,
they annually save some part of them, unless they annually
deprive themselves of the enjoyment of some part of them, the
revenue and wealth of their society can never be in the smallest
degree augmented by means of their industry. Farmers and country
labourers, on the contrary, may enjoy completely the whole funds
destined for their own subsistence, and yet augment at the same
time the revenue and wealth of their society. Over and above what
is destined for their own subsistence, their industry annually
affords a net produce, of which the augmentation necessarily
augments the revenue and wealth of their society. Nations
therefore which, like France or England, consist in a great
measure of proprietors and cultivators can be enriched by
industry and enjoyment. Nations, on the contrary, which, like
Holland and Hamburg, are composed chiefly of merchants,
artificers, and manufacturers can grow rich only through
parsimony and privation. As the interest of nations so
differently circumstanced is very different, so is likewise the
common character of the people: in those of the former kind,
liberality, frankness and good fellowship naturally make a part
of that common character: in the latter, narrowness, meanness,
and a selfish disposition, averse to all social pleasure and
enjoyment.
     The unproductive class, that of merchants, artificers, and
manufacturers, is maintained and employed altogether at the
expense of the two other classes, of that of proprietors, and of
that of cultivators. They furnish it both with the materials of
its work and with the fund of its subsistence, with the corn and
cattle which it consumes while it is employed about that work.
The proprietors and cultivators finally pay both the wages of all
the workmen of the unproductive class, and of the profits of all
their employers. Those workmen and their employers are properly
the servants of the proprietors and cultivators. They are only
servants who work without doors, as menial servants work within.
Both the one and the other, however, are equally maintained at
the expense of the same masters. The labour of both is equally
unproductive. It adds nothing to the value of the sum total of
the rude produce of the land. Instead of increasing the value of
that sum total, it is a charge and expense which must be paid out
of it.
     The unproductive class, however, is not only useful, but
greatly useful to the other two classes. By means of the industry
of merchants, artificers, and manufacturers, the proprietors and
cultivators can purchase both the foreign goods and the
manufactured produce of their own country which they have
occasion for with the produce of a much smaller quantity of their
own labour than what they would be obliged to employ if they were
to attempt, in an awkward and unskilful manner, either to import
the one or to make the other for their own use. By means of the
unproductive class, the cultivators are delivered from many cares
which would otherwise distract their attention from the
cultivation of land. The superiority of produce, which, in
consequence of this undivided attention, they are enabled to
raise, is fully sufficient to pay the whole expense which the
maintenance and employment of the unproductive class costs either
the proprietors or themselves. The industry of merchants,
artificers, and manufacturers, though in its own nature
altogether unproductive, yet contributes in this manner
indirectly to increase the produce of the land. It increases the
productive powers of productive labour by leaving it at liberty
to confine itself to its proper employment, the cultivation of
land; and the plough goes frequently the easier and the better by
means of the labour of the man whose business is most remote from
the plough.
     It can never be the interest of the proprietors and
cultivators to restrain or to discourage in any respect the
industry of merchants, artificers, and manufacturers. The greater
the liberty which this unproductive class enjoys, the greater
will be the competition in all the different trades which compose
it, and the cheaper will the other two classes be supplied, both
with foreign goods and with the manufactured produce of their own
country.
     It can never be the interest of the unproductive class to
oppress the other two classes. It is the surplus produce of the
land, or what remains after deducting the maintenance, first, of
the cultivators, and afterwards of the proprietors, that
maintains and employs the unproductive class. The greater this
surplus the greater must likewise be the maintenance and
employment of that class. The establishment of perfect justice,
of perfect liberty, and of perfect equality is the very simple
secret which most effectually secures the highest degree of
prosperity to all the three classes.
     The merchants, artificers, and manufacturers of those
mercantile states which, like Holland and Hamburg, consist
chiefly of this unproductive class, are in the same manner
maintained and employed altogether at the expense of the
proprietors and cultivators of land. The only difference is, that
those proprietors and cultivators are, the greater part of them,
placed at a most inconvenient distance from the merchants,
artificers, and manufacturers whom they supply with the materials
of their work and the fund of their subsistences- the inhabitants
of other countries and the subjects of other governments.
     Such mercantile states, however, are not only useful, but
greatly useful to the inhabitants of those other countries. They
fill up, in some measure, a very important void, and supply the
place of the merchants, artificers, and manufacturers whom the
inhabitants of those countries ought to find at home, but whom,
from some defect in their policy, they do not find at home.
     It can never be the interest of those landed nations, if I
may call them so, to discourage or distress the industry of such
mercantile states by imposing high duties upon their trade or
upon the commodities which they furnish. Such duties, by
rendering those commodities dearer, could serve only to sink the
real value of the surplus produce of their own land, with which,
or, what comes to the same thing, with the price of which those
commodities are purchased. Such duties could serve only to
discourage the increase of that surplus produce, and consequently
the improvement and cultivation of their own land. The most
effectual expedient, on the contrary, for raising the value of
that surplus produce, for encouraging its increase, and
consequently the improvement and cultivation of their own land
would be to allow the most perfect freedom to the trade of all
such mercantile nations.
     This perfect freedom of trade would even be the most
effectual expedient for supplying them, in due time, with all the
artificers, manufacturers, and merchants whom they wanted at
home, and for filling up in the properest and most advantageous
manner that very important void which they felt there.
     The continual increase of the surplus produce of their land
would, in due time, create a greater capital than what could be
employed with the ordinary rate of profit in the improvement and
cultivation of land; and the surplus part of it would naturally
turn itself to the employment of artificers and manufacturers at
home. But those artificers and manufacturers, finding at home
both the materials of their work and the fund of their
subsistence, might immediately even with much less art and skill
be able to work as cheap as the like artificers and manufacturers
of such mercantile states who had both to bring from a great
distance. Even though, from want of art and skill, they might not
for some time be able to work as cheap, yet, finding a market at
home, they might be able to sell their work there as cheap as
that of the artificers and manufacturers of such mercantile
states, which could not be brought to that market but from so
great a distance; and as their art and skill improved, they would
soon be able to sell it cheaper. The artificers and manufacturers
of such mercantile states, therefore, would immediately be
rivalled in the market of those landed nations, and soon after
undersold and jostled out of it altogether. The cheapness of the
manufactures of those landed nations, in consequence of the
gradual improvements of art and skill, would, in due time, extend
their sale beyond the home market, and carry them to many foreign
markets, from which they would in the same manner gradually
jostle out many of the manufacturers of such mercantile nations.
     This continual increase both of the rude and manufactured
produce of those landed nations would in due time create a
greater capital than could, with the ordinary rate of profit, be
employed either in agriculture or in manufactures. The surplus of
this capital would naturally turn itself to foreign trade, and be
employed in exporting to foreign countries such parts of the rude
and manufactured produce of its own country as exceeded the
demand of the home market. In the exportation of the produce of
their own country, the merchants of a landed nation would have an
advantage of the same kind over those of mercantile nations which
its artificers and manufacturers had over the artificers and
manufacturers of such nations; the advantage of finding at home
that cargo and those stores and provisions which the others were
obliged to seek for at a distance. With inferior art and skill in
navigation, therefore, they would be able to sell that cargo as
cheap in foreign markets as the merchants of such mercantile
nations; and with equal art and skill they would be able to sell
it cheaper. They would soon, therefore, rival those mercantile
nations in this branch of foreign trade, and in due time would
jostle them out of it altogether.
     According to this liberal and generous system, therefore,
the most advantageous method in which a landed nation can raise
up artificers, manufacturers, and merchants of its own is to
grant the most perfect freedom of trade to the artificers,
manufacturers, and merchants of all other nations. It thereby
raises the value of the surplus produce of its own land, of which
the continual increase gradually establishes a fund, which in due
time necessarily raises up all the artificers, manufacturers, and
merchants whom it has occasion for.
     When a landed nation, on the contrary, oppresses either by
high duties or by prohibitions the trade of foreign nations, it
necessarily hurts its own interest in two different ways. First,
by raising the price of all foreign goods and of all sorts of
manufactures, it necessarily sinks the real value of the surplus
produce of its own land, with which, or, what comes to the same
thing, with the price of which it purchases those foreign goods
and manufactures. Secondly, by giving a sort of monopoly of the
home market to its own merchants, artificers, and manufacturers,
it raises the rate of mercantile and manufacturing profit in
proportion to that of agricultural profit, and consequently
either draws from agriculture a part of the capital which had
before been employed in it, or hinders from going to it a part of
what would otherwise have gone to it. This policy, therefore,
discourages agriculture in two different ways; first, by sinking
the real value of its produce, and thereby lowering the rate of
its profit; and, secondly, by raising the rate of profit in all
other employments. Agriculture is rendered less advantageous, and
trade and manufactures more advantageous than they otherwise
would be; and every man is tempted by his own interest to turn,
as much as he can, both his capital and his industry from the
former to the latter employments.
     Though, by this oppressive policy, a landed nation should be
able to raise up artificers, manufacturers, and merchants of its
own somewhat sooner than it could do by the freedom of trade a
matter, however, which is not a little doubtful- yet it would
raise them up, if one may say so, prematurely, and before it was
perfectly ripe for them. By raising up too hastily one species of
industry, it would depress another more valuable species of
industry. By raising up too hastily a species of industry which
only replaces the stock which employs it, together with the
ordinary profit, it would depress a species of industry which,
over and above replacing that stock with its profit, affords
likewise a net produce, a free rent to the landlord. It would
depress productive labour, by encouraging too hastily that labour
which is altogether barren and unproductive.
     In what manner, according to this system, the sum total of
the annual produce of the land is distributed among the three
classes above mentioned, and in what manner the labour of the
unproductive class does no more than replace the value of its own
consumption, without increasing in any respect the value of that
sum total, is represented by Mr. Quesnai, the very ingenious and
profound author of this system, in some arithmetical formularies.
The first of these formularies, which by way of eminence he
peculiarly distinguishes by the name of the Economical Table,
represents the manner in which he supposes the distribution takes
place in a state of the most perfect liberty and therefore of the
highest prosperity- in a state where the annual produce is such
as to afford the greatest possible net produce, and where each
class enjoys its proper share of the whole annual produce. Some
subsequent formularies represent the manner in which he supposes
this distribution is made in different states of restraint and
regulation; in which either the class of proprietors or the
barren and unproductive class is more favoured than the class of
cultivators, and in which either the one or the other encroaches
more or less upon the share which ought properly to belong to
this productive class. Every such encroachment, every violation
of that natural distribution, which the most perfect liberty
would establish, must, according to this system, necessarily
degrade more or less, from one year to another, the value and sum
total of the annual produce, and must necessarily occasion a
gradual declension in the real wealth and revenue of the society;
a declension of which the progress must be quicker or slower,
according to the degree of this encroachment, according as that
natural distribution which the most perfect liberty would
establish is more or less violated. Those subsequent formularies
represent the different degrees of declension which, according to
this system, correspond to the different degrees in which this
natural distribution is violated.
     Some speculative physicians seem to have imagined that the
health of the human body could be preserved only by a certain
precise regimen of diet and exercise, of which every, the
smallest, violation necessarily occasioned some degree of disease
or disorder proportioned to the degree of the violation.
Experience, however, would seem to show that the human body
frequently preserves, to all appearances at least, the most
perfect state of health under a vast variety of different
regimens; even under some which are generally believed to be very
far from being perfectly wholesome. But the healthful state of
the human body, it would seem, contains in itself some unknown
principle of preservation, capable either of preventing or of
correcting, in many respects, the bad effects even of a very
faulty regimen. Mr. Quesnai, who was himself a physician, and a
very speculative physician, seems to have entertained a notion of
the same kind concerning the political body, and to have imagined
that it would thrive and prosper only under a certain precise
regimen, the exact regimen of perfect liberty and perfect
justice. He seems not to have considered that, in the political
body, the natural effort which every man is continually making to
better his own condition is a principle of preservation capable
of preventing and correcting, in many respects, the bad effects
of a political economy, in some degree, both partial and
oppressive. Such a political economy, though it no doubt retards
more or less, is not always capable of stopping altogether the
natural progress of a nation towards wealth and prosperity, and
still less of making it go backwards. If a nation could not
prosper without the enjoyment of perfect liberty and perfect
justice, there is not in the world a nation which could ever have
prospered. In the political body, however, the wisdom of nature
has fortunately made ample provision for remedying many of the
bad effects of the folly and injustice of man, in the same manner
as it has done in the natural body for remedying those of his
sloth and intemperance.
     The capital error of this system, however, seems to lie in
its representing the class of artificers, manufacturers, and
merchants as altogether barren and unproductive. The following
observations may serve to show the impropriety of this
representation.
     First, this class, it is acknowledged, reproduces annually
the value of its own annual consumption, and continues, at least,
the existence of the stock or capital which maintains and employs
it. But upon this account alone the denomination of barren or
unproductive should seem to be very improperly applied to it. We
should not call a marriage barren or unproductive though it
produced only a son and a daughter, to replace the father and
mother, and though it did not increase the number of the human
species, but only continued it as it was before. Farmers and
country labourers, indeed, over and above the stock which
maintains and employs them, reproduce annually a net produce, a
free rent to the landlord. As a marriage which affords three
children is certainly more productive than one which affords only
two; so the labour of farmers and country labourers is certainly
more productive than that of merchants, artificers, and
manufacturers. The superior produce of the one class, however,
does not render the other barren or unproductive.
     Secondly, it seems, upon this account, altogether improper
to consider artificers, manufacturers, and merchants in the same
light as menial servants. The labour of menial servants does not
continue the existence of the fund which maintains and employs
them. Their maintenance and employment is altogether at the
expense of their masters, and the work which they perform is not
of a nature to repay that expense. That work consists in services
which perish generally in the very instant of their performance,
and does not fix or realize itself in any vendible commodity
which can replace the value of their wages and maintenance. The
labour, on the contrary, of artificers, manufacturers, and
merchants naturally does fix and realize itself in some such
vendible commodity. It is upon this account that, in the chapter
in which I treat of productive and unproductive labour, I have
classed artificers, manufacturers, and merchants among the
productive labourers, and menial servants among the barren or
unproductive.
     Thirdly, it seems upon every supposition improper to say
that the labour of artificers, manufacturers, and merchants does
not increase the real revenue of the society. Though we should
suppose, for example, as it seems to be supposed in this system,
that the value of the daily, monthly, and yearly consumption of
this class was exactly equal to that of its daily, monthly, and
yearly production, yet it would not from thence follow that its
labour added nothing to the real revenue, to the real value of
the annual produce of the land and labour of the society. An
artificer, for example, who, in the first six months after
harvest, executes ten pounds' worth of work, though he should in
the same time consume ten pounds' worth of corn and other
necessaries, yet really adds the value of ten pounds to the
annual produce of the land and labour of the society. While he
has been consuming a half-yearly revenue of ten pounds' worth of
corn and other necessaries, he has produced an equal value of
work capable of purchasing, either to himself or some other
person, an equal half-yearly revenue. The value, therefore, of
what has been consumed and produced during these six months is
equal, not to ten, but to twenty pounds. It is possible, indeed,
that no more than ten pounds' worth of this value may ever have
existed at any one moment of time. But if the ten pounds' worth
of corn and other necessaties, which were consumed by the
artificer, had been consumed by a soldier or by a menial servant,
the value of that part of the annual produce which existed at the
end of the six months would have been ten pounds less than it
actually is in consequence of the labour of the artificer. Though
the value of what the artificer produces, therefore, should not
at any one moment of time be supposed greater than the value he
consumes, yet at every moment of time the actually existing value
of goods in the market is, in consequence of what he produces,
greater than it otherwise would be.
     When the patrons of this system assert that the consumption
of artificers, manufacturers, and merchants is equal to the value
of what they produce, they probably mean no more than that their
revenue, or the fund destined for their consumption, is equal to
it. But if they had expressed themselves more accurately, and
only asserted that the revenue of this class was equal to the
value of what they produced, it might readily have occurred to
the reader that what would naturally be saved out of this revenue
must necessarily increase more or less the real wealth of the
society. In order, therefore, to make out something like an
argument, it was necessary that they should express themselves as
they have done; and this argument, even supposing things actually
were as it seems to presume them to be, turns out to be a very
inconclusive one.
     Fourthly, farmers and country labourers can no more augment,
without parsimony, the real revenue, the annual produce of the
land and labour of their society, than artificers, manufacturers,
and merchants. The annual produce of the land and labour of any
society can be augmented only in two ways; either, first, by some
improvement in the productive powers of the useful labour
actually maintained within it; or, secondly, by some increase in
the quantity of that labour.
     The improvement in the productive powers of useful labour
depend, first, upon the improvement in the ability of the
workman; and, secondly, upon that of the machinery with which he
works. But the labour of artificers and manufacturers, as it is
capable of being more subdivided, and the labour of each workman
reduced to a greater simplicity of operation than that of farmers
and country labourers, so it is likewise capable of both these
sorts of improvements in a much higher degree. In this respect,
therefore, the class of cultivators can have no sort of advantage
over that of artificers and manufacturers.
     The increase in the quantity of useful labour actually
employed within any society must depend altogether upon the
increase of the capital which employs it; and the increase of
that capital again must be exactly equal to the amount of the
savings from the revenue, either of the particular persons who
manage and direct the employment of that capital, or of some
other persons who lend it to them. If merchants, artificers, and
manufacturers are, as this system seems to suppose, naturally
more inclined to parsimony and saving than proprietors and
cultivators, they are, so far, more likely to augment the
quantity of useful labour employed within their society, and
consequently to increase its real revenue, the annual produce of
its land and labour.
     Fifthly and lastly, though the revenue of the inhabitants of
every country was supposed to consist altogether, as this system
seems to suppose, in the quantity of subsistence which their
industry could procure to them; yet, even upon this supposition,
the revenue of a trading and manufacturing country must, other
things being equal, always be much greater than that of one
without trade or manufactures. By means of trade and
manufactures, a greater quantity of subsistence can be annually
imported into a particular country than what its own lands, in
the actual state of their cultivation, could afford. The
inhabitants of a town, though they frequently possess no lands of
their own, yet draw to themselves by their industry such a
quantity of the rude produce of the lands of other people as
supplies them, not only with the materials of their work, but
with the fund of their subsistence. What a town always is with
regard to the country in its neighbourhood, one independent state
or country may frequently be with regard to other independent
states or countries. It is thus that Holland draws a great part
of its subsistence from other countries; live cattle from
Holstein and Jutland, and corn from almost all the different
countries of Europe. A small quantity of manufactured produce
purchases a great quantity of rude produce. A trading and
manufacturing country, therefore, naturally purchases with a
small part of its manufactured produce a great part of the rude
produce of other countries; while, on the contrary, a country
without trade and manufactures is generally obliged to purchase,
at the expense of a great part of its rude produce, a very small
part of the manufactured produce of other countries. The one
exports what can subsist and accommodate but a very few, and
imports the subsistence and accommodation of a great number. The
other exports the accommodation and subsistence of a great
number, and imports that of a very few only. The inhabitants of
the one must always enjoy a much greater quantity of subsistence
than what their own lands, in the actual state of their
cultivation, could afford. The inhabitants of the other must
always enjoy a much smaller quantity.
     This system, however, with all its imperfections is,
perhaps, the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been
published upon the subject of political economy, and is upon that
account well worth the consideration of every man who wishes to
examine with attention the principles of that very important
science. Though in representing the labour which is employed upon
land as the only productive labour, the notions which it
inculcates are perhaps too narrow and confined; yet in
representing the wealth of nations as consisting, not in the
unconsumable riches of money, but in the consumable goods
annually reproduced by the labour of the society, and in
representing perfect liberty as the only effectual expedient for
rendering this annual reproduction the greatest possible, its
doctrine seems to be in every respect as just as it is generous
and liberal. Its followers are very numerous; and as men are fond
of paradoxes, and of appearing to understand what surpasses the
comprehension of ordinary people, the paradox which it maintains,
concerning the unproductive nature of manufacturing labour, has
not perhaps contributed a little to increase the number of its
admirers. They have for some years past made a pretty
considerable sect, distinguished in the French republic of
letters by the name of The Economists. Their works have certainly
been of some service to their country; not only by bringing into
general discussion many subjects which had never been well
examined before, but by influencing in some measure the public
administration in favour of agriculture. It has been in
consequence of their representations, accordingly, that the
agriculture of France has been delivered from several of the
oppressions which it before laboured under. The term during which
such a lease can be granted, as will be valid against every
future purchaser or proprietor of the land, has been prolonged
from nine to twenty-seven years. The ancient provincial
restraints upon the transportation of corn from one province of
the kingdom to another have been entirely taken away, and the
liberty of exporting it to all foreign countries has been
established as the common law of the kingdom in all ordinary
cases. This sect, in their works, which are very numerous, and
which treat not only of what is properly called Political
Economy, or of the nature and causes of the wealth of nations,
but of every other branch of the system of civil government, all
follow implicitly and without any sensible variation, the
doctrine of Mr. Quesnai. There is upon this account little
variety in the greater part of their works. The most distinct and
best connected account of this doctrine is to be found in a
little book written by Mr. Mercier de la Riviere, some time
intendant of Martinico, entitled, The Natural and Essential Order
of Political Societies. The admiration of this whole sect for
their master, who was himself a man of the greatest modesty and
simplicity, is not inferior to that of any of the ancient
philosophers for the founders of their respective systems. "There
have been, since the world began," says a very diligent and
respectable author, the Marquis de Mirabeau, "three great
inventions which have principally given stability to political
societies, independent of many other inventions which have
enriched and adorned them. The first is the invention of writing,
which alone gives human nature the power of transmitting, without
alteration, its laws, its contracts, its annals, and its
discoveries. The second is the invention of money, which binds
together all the relations between civilised societies. The third
is the Economical Table, the result of the other two, which
completes them both by perfecting their object; the great
discovery of our age, but of which our posterity will reap the
benefit."
     As the political economy of the nations of modern Europe has
been more favourable to manufactures and foreign trade, the
industry of the towns, than to agriculture, the industry of the
country; so that of other nations has followed a different plan,
and has been more favourable to agriculture than to manufactures
and foreign trade.
     The policy of China favours agriculture more than all other
employments. In China the condition of a labourer is said to be
as much superior to that of an artificer as in most parts of
Europe that of an artificer is to that of a labourer. In China,
the great ambition of every man is to get possession of some
little bit of land, either in property or in lease; and leases
are there said to be granted upon very moderate terms, and to be
sufficiently secured to the lessees. The Chinese have little
respect for foreign trade. Your beggarly commerce! was the
language in which the Mandarins of Pekin used to talk to Mr. de
Lange, the Russian envoy, concerning it. Except with Japan, the
Chinese carry on, themselves, and in their own bottoms, little or
no foreign trade; and it is only into one or two ports of their
kingdom that they even admit the ships of foreign nations.
Foreign trade therefore is, in China, every way confined within a
much narrower circle than that to which it would naturally extend
itself, if more freedom was allowed to it, either in their own
ships, or in those of foreign nations.
     Manufactures, as in a small bulk they frequently contain a
great value, and can upon that account be transported at less
expense from one country to another than most parts of rude
produce, are, in almost all countries, the principal support of
foreign trade. In countries, besides, less extensive and less
favourably circumstanced for inferior commerce than China, they
generally require the support of foreign trade. Without an
extensive foreign market they could not well flourish, either in
countries so moderately extensive as to afford but a narrow home
market or in countries where the communication between one
province and another was so difficult as to render it impossible
for the goods of any particular place to enjoy the whole of that
home market which the country could afford. The perfection of
manufacturing industry, it must be remembered, depends altogether
upon the division of labour; and the degree to which the division
of labour can be introduced into any manufacture is necessarily
regulated, it has already been shown, by the extent of the
market. But the great extent of the empire of China, the vast
multitude of its inhabitants, the variety of climate, and
consequently of productions in its different provinces, and the
easy communication by means of water carriage between the greater
part of them, render the home market of that country of so great
extent as to be alone sufficient to support very great
manufactures, and to admit of very considerable subdivisions of
labour. The home market of China is, perhaps, in extent, not much
inferior to the market of all the different countries of Europe
put together. A more extensive foreign trade, however, which to
this great home market added the foreign market of all the rest
of the world- especially if any considerable part of this trade
was carried on in Chinese ships- could scarce fail to increase
very much the manufactures of China, and to improve very much the
productive powers of its manufacturing industry. By a more
extensive navigation, the Chinese would naturally learn the art
of using and constructing themselves all the different machines
made use of in other countries, as well as the other improvements
of art and industry which are practised in all the different
parts of the world. Upon their present plan they have little
opportunity except that of the Japanese.
     The policy of ancient Egypt too, and that of the Gentoo
government of Indostan, seem to have favoured agriculture more
than all other employments.
     Both in ancient Egypt and Indostan the whole body of the
people was divided into different castes or tribes, each of which
was confined, from father to son, to a particular employment or
class of employments. The son of a priest was necessarily a
priest; the son of a soldier, a soldier; the son of a labourer, a
labourer; the son of a weaver, a weaver; the son of a tailor, a
tailor, etc. In both countries, the caste of the priests held the
highest rank, and that of the soldiers the next; and in both
countries, the caste of the farmers and labourers was superior to
the castes of merchants and manufacturers.
     The government of both countries was particularly attentive
to the interest of agriculture. The works constructed by the
ancient sovereigns of Egypt for the proper distribution of the
waters of the Nile were famous in antiquity; and the ruined
remains of some of them are still the admiration of travellers.
Those of the same kind which were constructed by the ancient
sovereigns of Indostan for the proper distribution of the waters
of the Ganges as well as of many other rivers, though they have
been less celebrated, seem to have been equally great. Both
countries, accordingly, though subject occasionally to dearths,
have been famous for their great fertility. Though both were
extremely populous, yet, in years of moderate plenty, they were
both able to export great quantities of grain to their
neighbours.
     The ancient Egyptians had a superstitious aversion to the
sea; and as the Gentoo religion does not permit its followers to
light a fire, nor consequently to dress any victuals upon the
water, it in effect prohibits them from all distant sea voyages.
Both the Egyptians and Indians must have depended almost
altogether upon the navigation of other nations for the
exportation of their surplus produce; and this dependency, as it
must have confined the market, so it must have discouraged the
increase of this surplus produce. It must have discouraged, too,
the increase of the manufactured produce more than that of the
rude produce. Manufactures require a much more extensive market
than the most important parts of the rude produce of the land. A
single shoemaker will make more than three hundred pairs of shoes
in the year; and his own family will not, perhaps, wear out six
pairs. Unless therefore he has the custom of at least fifty such
families as his own, he cannot dispose of the whole produce of
his own labour. The most numerous class of artificers will
seldom, in a large country, make more than one in fifty or one in
a hundred of the whole number of families contained in it. But in
such large countries as France and England, the number of people
employed in agriculture has by some authors been computed at a
half, by others at a third, and by no author that I know of, at
less than a fifth of the whole inhabitants of the country. But as
the produce of the agriculture of both France and England is, the
far greater part of it, consumed at home, each person employed in
it must, according to these computations, require little more
than the custom of one, two, or at most, of four such families as
his own in order to dispose of the whole produce of his own
labour. Agriculture, therefore, can support itself under the
discouragement of a confined market much better than
manufactures. In both ancient Egypt and Indostan, indeed, the
confinement of the foreign market was in some measure compensated
by the conveniency of many inland navigations, which opened, in
the most advantageous manner, the whole extent of the home market
to every part of the produce of every different district of those
countries. The great extent of Indostan, too, rendered the home
market of that country very great, and sufficient to support a
great variety of manufactures. But the small extent of ancient
Egypt, which was never equal to England, must at all times have
rendered the home market of that country too narrow for
supporting any great variety of manufactures. Bengal,
accordingly, the province of Indostan, which commonly exports the
greatest quantity of rice, has always been more remarkable for
the exportation of a great variety of manufactures than for that
of its grain. Ancient Egypt, on the contrary, though it exported
some manufactures, fine linen in particular, as well as some
other goods, was always most distinguished for its great
exportation of grain. It was long the granary of the Roman
empire.
     The sovereigns of China, of ancient Egypt, and of the
different kingdoms into which Indostan has at different times
been divided, have always derived the whole, or by far the most
considerable part, of their revenue from some sort of land tax or
land rent. This land tax or land rent, like the tithe in Europe,
consisted in a certain proportion, a fifth, it is said, of the
produce of the land, which was either delivered in kind, or paid
in money, according to a certain valuation, and which therefore
varied from year to year according to all the variations of the
produce. It was natural therefore that the sovereigns of those
countries should be particularly attentive to the interests of
agriculture, upon the prosperity or declension of which
immediately depended the yearly increase or diminution of their
own revenue.
     The policy of the ancient republics of Greece, and that of
Rome, though it honoured agriculture more than manufactures or
foreign trade, yet seems rather to have discouraged the latter
employments than to have given any direct or intentional
encouragement to the former. In several of the ancient states of
Greece, foreign trade was prohibited altogether; and in several
others the employments of artificers and manufacturers were
considered as hurtful to the strength and agility of the human
body, as rendering it incapable of those habits which their
military and gymnastic exercises endeavoured to form in it, and
as thereby disqualifying it more or less for undergoing the
fatigues and encountering the dangers of war. Such occupations
were considered as fit only for slaves, and the free citizens of
the state were prohibited from exercising them. Even in those
states where no such prohibition took place, as in Rome and
Athens, the great body of the people were in effect excluded from
all the trades which are, now commonly exercised by the lower
sort of the inhabitants of towns. Such trades were, at Athens and
Rome, all occupied by the slaves of the rich, who exercised them
for the benefit of their masters, whose wealth, power, and
protection made it almost impossible for a poor freeman to find a
market for his work, when it came into competition with that of
the slaves of the rich. Slaves, however, are very seldom
inventive; and all the most important improvements, either in
machinery, or in the arrangement and distribution of work which
facilitate and abridge labour, have been the discoveries of
freemen. Should a slave propose any improvement of this kind, his
master would be very apt to consider the proposal as the
suggestion of laziness, and a desire to save his own labour at
the master's expense. The poor slave, instead of reward, would
probably meet with much abuse, perhaps with some punishment. In
the manufactures carried on by slaves, therefore, more labour
must generally have been employed to execute the same quantity of
work than in those carried on by freemen. The work of the former
must, upon that account, generally have been dearer than that of
the latter. The Hungarian mines, it is remarked by Mr.
Montesquieu, though not richer, have always been wrought with
less expense, and therefore with more profit, than the Turkish
mines in their neighbourhood. The Turkish mines are wrought by
slaves; and the arms of those slaves are the only machines which
the Turks have ever thought of employing. The Hungarian mines are
wrought by freemen, who employ a great deal of machinery, by
which they facilitate and abridge their own labour. From the very
little that is known about the price of manufactures in the times
of the Greeks and Romans, it would appear that those of the finer
sort were excessively dear. Silk sold for its weight in gold. It
was not, indeed, in those times a European manufacture; and as it
was all brought from the East Indies, the distance of the
carriage may in some measure account for the greatness of price.
The price, however, which a lady, it is said, would sometimes pay
for a piece of very fine linen, seems to have been equally
extravagant; and as linen was always either a European, or at
farthest, an Egyptian manufacture, this high price can be
accounted for only by the great expense of the labour which must
have been employed about it, and the expense of this labour again
could arise from nothing but the awkwardness of the machinery
which it made use of. The price of fine woollens too, though not
quite so extravagant, seems however to have been much above that
of the present times. Some cloths, we are told by Pliny, dyed in
a particular manner, cost a hundred denarii, or three pounds six
shillings and eightpence the pound weight. Others dyed in another
manner cost a thousand denarii the pound weight, or thirty-three
pounds six shillings and eightpence. The Roman pound, it must be
remembered, contained only twelve of our avoirdupois ounces. This
high price, indeed, seems to have been principally owing to the
dye. But had not the cloths themselves been much dearer than any
which are made in the present times, so very expensive a dye
would not probably have been bestowed upon them. The
disproportion would have been too great between the value of the
accessory and that of the principal. The price mentioned by the
same author of some Triclinaria, a sort of woollen pillows or
cushions made use of to lean upon as they reclined upon their
couches at table, passes all credibility; some of them being said
to have cost more than thirty thousand, others more than three
hundred thousand pounds. This high price, too, is not said to
have arisen from the dye. In the dress of the people of fashion
of both sexes there seems to have been much less variety, it is
observed by Doctor Arbuthnot, in ancient than in modern times;
and the very little variety which we find in that of the ancient
statues confirms his observation. He infers from this that their
dress must upon the whole have been cheaper than ours; but the
conclusion does not seem to follow. When the expense of
fashionable dress is very great, the variety must be very small.
But when, by the improvements in the productive powers of
manufacturing art and industry, the expense of any one dress
comes to be very moderate, the variety will naturally be very
great. The rich, not being able to distinguish themselves by the
expense of any one dress, will naturally endeavour to do so by
the multitude and variety of their dresses.
     The greatest and most important branch of the commerce of
every nation, it has already been observed, is that which is
carried on between the inhabitants of the town and those of the
country. The inhabitants of the town draw from the country the
rude produce which constitutes both the materials of their work
and the fund of their subsistence; and they pay for this rude
produce by sending back to the country a certain portion of it
manufactured and prepared for immediate use. The trade which is
carried on between these two different sets of people consists
ultimately in a certain quantity of rude produce exchanged for a
certain quantity of manufactured produce. The dearer the latter,
therefore, the cheaper the former; and whatever tends in any
country to raise the price of manufactured produce tends to lower
that of the rude produce of the land, and thereby to discourage
agriculture. The smaller the quantity of manufactured produce
which in any given quantity of rude produce, or, what comes to
the same thing, which the price of any given quantity of rude
produce is capable of purchasing, the smaller the exchangeable
value of that given quantity of rude produce, the smaller the
encouragement which either the landlord has to increase its
quantity by improving or the farmer by cultivating the land.
Whatever, besides, tends to diminish in any country the number of
artificers and manufacturers, tends to diminish the home market,
the most important of all markets for the rude produce of the
land, and thereby still further to discourage agriculture.
     Those systems, therefore, which, preferring agriculture to
all other employments, in order to promote it, impose restraints
upon manufactures and foreign trade, act contrary to the very end
which they propose, and indirectly discourage that very species
of industry which they mean to promote. They are so far, perhaps,
more inconsistent than even the mercantile system. That system,
by encouraging manufactures and foreign trade more than
agriculture, turns a certain portion of the capital of the
society from supporting a more advantageous, to support a less
advantageous species of industry. But still it really and in the
end encourages that species of industry which it means to
promote. Those agricultural systems, on the contrary, really and
in the end discourage their own favourite species of industry.
     It is thus that every system which endeavours, either by
extraordinary encouragements to draw towards a particular species
of industry a greater share of the capital of the society than
what would naturally go to it, or, by extraordinary restraints,
force from a particular species of industry some share of the
capital which would otherwise be employed in it, is in reality
subversive of the great purpose which it means to promote. It
retards, instead of accelerating, the progress of the society
towards real wealth and greatness; and diminishes, instead of
increasing, the real value of the annual produce of its land and
labour.
     All systems either of preference or of restraint, therefore,
being thus completely taken away, the obvious and simple system
of natural liberty establishes itself of its own accord. Every
man, as long as he does not violate the laws of justice, is left
perfectly free to pursue his own interest his own way, and to
bring both his industry and capital into competition with those
of any other man, or order of men. The sovereign is completely
discharged from a duty, in the attempting to perform which he
must always be exposed to innumerable delusions, and for the
proper performance of which no human wisdom or knowledge could
ever be sufficient; the duty of superintending the industry of
private people, and of directing it towards the employments most
suitable to the interest of the society. According to the system
of natural liberty, the sovereign has only three duties to attend
to; three duties of great importance, indeed, but plain and
intelligible to common understandings: first, the duty of
protecting the society from violence and invasion of other
independent societies; secondly, the duty of protecting, as far
as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or
oppression of every other member of it, or the duty of
establishing an exact administration of justice; and, thirdly,
the duty of erecting and maintaining certain public works and
certain public institutions which it can never be for the
interest of any individual, or small number of individuals, to
erect and maintain; because the profit could never repay the
expense to any individual or small number of individuals, though
it may frequently do much more than repay it to a great society.
     The proper performance of those several duties of the
sovereign necessarily supposes a certain expense; and this
expense again necessarily requires a certain revenue to support
it. In the following book, therefore, I shall endeavour to
explain, first, what are the necessary expenses of the sovereign
or commonwealth; and which of those expenses ought to be defrayed
by the general contribution of the whole society; and which of
them by that of some particular part only, or of some particular
members of the society; secondly, what are the different methods
in which the whole society may be made to contribute towards
defraying the expenses incumbent on the whole society, and what
are the principal advantages and inconveniences of each of those
methods; and thirdly, what are the reasons and causes which have
induced almost all modern governments to mortgage some part of this revenue, or to contract debts, and what have been the effects of those debts upon the real wealth, the annual produce of the land and labour of the society. The following book, therefore,
 will naturally be divided into three chapters.