##------------------------------------## ## Script for Crash Course in R ## ## John Fox ## ## ESRC Oxford Spring School ## ## May 2005 ## ##------------------------------------## ### Introduction # Basics # arithmetic, interacting with the interpreter # basic arithmetic operations 2+3 2-3 2*3 2/3 2^3 # precedence of operators 4^2-3*2 (4^2) - (3*2) # use parentheses and spaces to group, clarify -2--3 -2 - -3 1 - 6 + 4 2^-3 # functions, arguments to functions, obtaining help log(100) log(100, base=10) log(100, b=10) help(log) ?log apropos("log") help.search("log") log(100,10) "+"(2,3) # vectors c(1,2,3,4) # combine 1:4 # sequence operator 4:1 -1:2 # note precedence seq(1,4) seq(2, 8, by=2) seq(0, 1, by=.1) seq(0, 1, length=11) # vectorized arithmetic c(1,2,3,4)/2 c(1,2,3,4)/c(4,3,2,1) log(c(0.1,1,10,100), 10) c(1,2,3,4) + c(4,3) c(1,2,3,4) + c(4,3,2) # variables x <- c(1,2,3,4) x x/2 y <- sqrt(x) y x <- rnorm(100) x summary(x) # a "generic" function # basic indexing x[21] x[11:20] x[-(11:100)] # careful here! z <- x[1:10] z z < -0.5 z > 0.5 z < -0.5 | z > 0.5 # | is vectored "or", & is "and" abs(z) > 0.5 z[abs(z) > 0.5] # indexing by a logical vector # user-defined functions mean(x) sum(x)/length(x) my.mean <- function(x) sum(x)/length(x) my.mean(x) my.mean(y) my.mean(1:100) x # Duncan example # creating a data frame from data stored in a file Duncan <- read.table( 'http://socserv.socsci.mcmaster.ca/jfox/Courses/Oxford/Duncan.txt', header=TRUE) Duncan summary(Duncan) # attaching a data frame prestige attach(Duncan) prestige # distributions and bivariate relationships hist(prestige) plot(income, education) noteworthy <- identify(income, education, row.names(Duncan)) noteworthy row.names(Duncan)[noteworthy] pairs(cbind(prestige,income,education), panel=function(x,y){ points(x,y) abline(lm(y~x), lty=2) lines(lowess(x,y)) }, diag.panel=function(x){ par(new=TRUE) hist(x, main="", axes=FALSE) } ) # fitting a regression duncan.model <- lm(prestige ~ income + education) duncan.model summary(duncan.model) # regression diagnostics library(car) hist(rstudent(duncan.model)) qq.plot(duncan.model, labels=row.names(Duncan), simulate=TRUE) plot(hatvalues(duncan.model)) abline(h = c(2,3)*3/45) identify(1:45, hatvalues(duncan.model), row.names(Duncan)) plot(cookd(duncan.model)) abline(h = 4/(45-2-1)) identify(1:45, cookd(duncan.model), row.names(Duncan)) av.plots(duncan.model, labels=row.names(Duncan)) cr.plots(duncan.model) # refitting the model which.names(c('minister', 'conductor'), Duncan) duncan.model.2 <- update(duncan.model, subset=-c(6, 16)) summary(duncan.model.2) ### Data in R # Reading data # entering data at the keyboard x <- c(1,2,3,4) # numeric data x names <-c ('John', 'Georges', 'Mary') # character data names v <- c(TRUE, FALSE) # logical data v cooperation <- scan() 49 64 37 52 68 54 61 79 64 29 27 58 52 41 30 40 39 44 34 44 cooperation condition <- rep(c("public", "anonymous"), c(10,10)) condition sex <- rep(rep(c("male", "female"), c(5,5)), 2) sex Guyer <- data.frame(cooperation, condition, sex) Guyer # reading data from a file into a data frame Prestige <- read.table(file.choose(), header=TRUE) Prestige # accessing data in a package library(car) data(Duncan) Duncan # The search path search() prestige Duncan[,"prestige"] attach(Duncan) prestige search() attach(Prestige) search() prestige # prestige in Prestige shadows prestige in Duncan Duncan[,"prestige"] detach(Prestige) search() prestige detach(Duncan) # missing data data(Freedman) attach(Freedman) Freedman[1:10,] density median(density) median(density, na.rm=TRUE) plot(density, crime) identify(density, crime, rownames(Freedman)) log(c(1, 10, NA, 100), base=10) plot(log(density, base=10), crime) lm(crime ~ log(density, base=10)) abline(lm(crime ~ log(density, base=10)), lty=2) good <- complete.cases(density, crime) good lines(lowess(log(density[good], base=10), crime[good])) options("na.action") detach(Freedman) Freedman.good <- na.omit(Freedman) Freedman.good[1:10,] dim(Freedman.good) dim(Freedman) # numeric variables, character variables, and factors objects() remove(good, Freedman.good) condition is.character(condition) condition <- as.factor(condition) condition remove(cooperation, condition, sex) attach(Guyer) condition is.character(condition) is.factor(condition) summary(Guyer) # Matrices, arrays, and lists A <- matrix(1:12, 3, 4) A B <- matrix(c('a','b','c'), 4, 3, byrow=TRUE) B dim(A) dim(B) v <- sample(10,10) v dim(v) array.3 <- array(1:24, c(4,3,2)) array.3 dim(array.3) list.1 <- list(mat.1=A, mat.2=B, vec=v) list.1 # Indexing (time permitting) # vectors v v[2] # one element v[c(4,2,6)] # several elements v[c(4,2,4)] # elements may be repeated v[-c(2,4,6,8,10)] # omitting elements names(v) <- letters[1:10] v names(v) v[c('f','i','g')] # indexing by names v < 6 v[v < 6] # logical indexing vv <- v vv vv[c(1,3,5)] <- c(1,2,3) # replacing elements vv vv[c('b','d','f','h','j')] <- 0 vv remove(vv) # matrices A A[2,3] A[c(1,2), 2] A[c(1,2), c(2,3)] A[c(1,2),] A[c(1,2), 2, drop=FALSE] # retain column dimension A[, -c(1,3)] # delete columns 1 and 3 A[-1, -2] # delete row 1 and column 2 rownames(A) <- c('one', 'two', 'three') colnames(A) <- c('w','x','y', 'z') A A[c('one','two'), c('x','y')] A[c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE),] AA <- A AA AA[1,] <- 0 AA remove(AA) # lists list.1 list.1[c(2,3)] list.1[2] # a one-element list class(list.1[2]) list.1[[2]] # a list element class(list.1[[2]]) list.1["mat.1"] list.1[["mat.1"]] list.1$mat.1 list.1$mat.1 <- matrix(1, 2, 2) # replacing a list element list.1$title <- 'an arbitrary list' # adding an element list.1$mat.2<-NULL # removing an element list.1 # data frames attach(Guyer) Guyer Guyer[,1] Guyer[,'cooperation'] Guyer[c(1,2),] Guyer[c('1','2'), 'cooperation'] Guyer[-(6:20),] sex=='female' & condition=='public' Guyer[sex=='female' & condition=='public',] Guyer$cooperation Guyer[['cooperation']] Guyer['cooperation'] # a one-column data frame ### Statistical Models in R # multiple regression (Prestige data) library(car) data(Prestige) names(Prestige) attach(Prestige) prestige.mod <- lm(prestige ~ income + education + women) summary(prestige.mod) # dummy regression type # a factor detach(Prestige) Prestige.2 <- na.omit(Prestige) # filter out missing data attach(Prestige.2) type length(type) class(type) unclass(type) # generating contrasts from factors options("contrasts") contrasts(type) contrasts(type) <- contr.treatment(levels(type), base=2) # changing # the baseline category contrasts(type) contrasts(type) <- 'contr.helmert' # Helmert contrasts contrasts(type) contrasts(type) <- 'contr.sum' # "deviation" contrasts contrasts(type) contrasts(type) <- NULL # back to default type.ord <- ordered(type, levels=c("bc", "wc", "prof")) # ordered factor type.ord round(contrasts(type.ord), 3) # orthogonal polynomial contrasts prestige.mod.1 <- lm(prestige ~ income + education + type) summary(prestige.mod.1) anova(prestige.mod.1) # sequential ("type-I") sums of squares prestige.mod.0 <- lm(prestige ~ income + education) summary(prestige.mod.0) anova(prestige.mod.0, prestige.mod.1) # incremental F-test Anova(prestige.mod.1) # "type-II" sums of squares prestige.mod.2 <- lm(prestige ~ income + education + type - 1) # suppressing the constant summary(prestige.mod.2) Anova(prestige.mod.2) # note: test for type is that all intercepts # are 0 (not sensible) prestige.mod.3 <- update(prestige.mod.1, .~. + income:type + education:type) # adding interactions to the model summary(prestige.mod.3) Anova(prestige.mod.3) lm(prestige ~ income*type + education*type) # equivalent specifications lm(prestige ~ (income + education)*type) lm(prestige ~ type + (income + education) %in% type) # nesting lm(prestige ~ type + (income + education) %in% type - 1) # separate # intercepts and slopes detach(Prestige.2) # more on lm args(lm) data(Davis) lm(weight ~ repwt, data=Davis, subset=sex == "F") # observation # selection lm(weight ~ repwt, data=Davis, subset=1:100) data(Duncan) lm(prestige ~ income + education, data=Duncan, subset=-c(6, 16)) lm(prestige~I(income + education), data=Duncan) # protecting # expresssion on RHS of the model # generalized linear models # binary logit model data(Mroz) some(Mroz) attach(Mroz) mod.mroz <- glm(lfp ~ k5 + k618 + age + wc + hc + lwg + inc, family=binomial) summary(mod.mroz) anova(update(mod.mroz, . ~ . - k5), mod.mroz, test="Chisq") # likelihood-ratio test Anova(mod.mroz) # analysis-of-deviance table detach(Mroz)